Weapon House

Spear

2009-10-17T03:38:00.000-07:00

A spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a sharpened head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with bamboo spears, or it may be of another material fastened to the shaft, such as obsidian, iron or bronze. The most common design is of a metal spearhead, shaped like a triangle or a leaf.

Spears were one of the most common personal weapons from the Stone Age until the advent of firearms. They may be seen as the ancestor of such weapons as the lance, the halberd, the naginata, the bill and the pike. One of the earliest weapons fashioned by human beings and their ancestors, it is still used for hunting and fishing, and its influences can still be seen in contemporary military arsenals as the rifle-mounted bayonet.

Spears can be used as both melee and ballistic weapons. Spears used primarily for thrusting may be used with either one or two hands and tend to have heavier and sturdier designs than those intended exclusively for throwing. Those designed for throwing, often referred to as javelins, tend to be lighter and have a more streamlined head, and can be thrown either by hand or with the assistance of a spear thrower such as the atalatl or woomera.

History

Animal use

Spear manufacture and use is also practiced by the Pan troglodytes verus subspecies of the Common Chimpanzee. Chimpanzees near Kédougou, Senegal were observed to create spears by breaking straight limbs off of trees, stripping them of their bark and side branches, and sharpening one end with their teeth. They then used the weapons to hunt galagos sleeping in hollows.^[1]. Orangutans have also used spears to fish after observing humans fishing in a similar manner.

Prehistory

Hupa man with spear, 1923

Archeological evidence documents that wooden spears were used for hunting at least 400,000 years ago.^[3] However, wood does not preserve well. Craig Stanford, a primatologist and professor of anthropology at the University of Southern California, has suggested that the discovery of spear use by chimpanzees probably means that early humans used wooden spears as well, perhaps five million years ago.^[4]

Neanderthals were constructing stone spear heads from as early as 300,000 BP. By 250,000 years ago wooden spears were made with fire-hardened points. From 200,000 BP Middle Paleolithic humans began to make complex stone blades which were used as spear heads. At these times there was still a clear difference between spears designed to be thrown and those designed to be used in hand to hand combat.

Ancient history

Re-enactor outfitted as a Roman legionnaire of the northern Roman provinces from circa 175 AD

Short one handed spears used with a shield were used by the earliest Bronze Age cultures for either single combat or in large formations. This tradition continued from the first Mesopotamian cultures through the Egyptian dynasties to the Ancient Greek city states. The Greek doru was used in large battle formations, called phalanges (sg. phalanx), to maximize its effectiveness. Both Phillip of Macedon and Alexander the Great continued this tradition using the very long two handed Sarissa to great effect. The use of the spear with two hands dropped out of European fashion from the Roman period until development of the pike in the Middle Ages. The Roman legions contained soldiers who used the shield and spear, known as the Triarii, and originally the Principes were armed with a short spear called a hasta, but these gradually fell out of use to be eventually replaced by the Gladius. However even these troops carried the pilum, which was specifically designed to be thrown at an enemy to pierce and foul a target's shield.

During this time the spear was also used by cavalry, usually with two hands, partly due to the lack of stirrups. The use of a spear by a heavily armored soldier from horseback (known as Cataphracts) was first developed by nomadic eastern Iranian tribes and spread throughout the ancient world.

European Middle Ages

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the spear and shield continued to be used by almost all Western European cultures. Since a medieval spear required only a small amount of steel along the sharpened edges (most of the spear-tip was wrought iron), it was an economical weapon. Quick to manufacture, and needing less smithing skill than a sword, it remained the main weapon of the common soldier. The Vikings, for instance, though often portrayed with axe or sword in hand, were armed mostly with spears^[5], as were their Saxon, Irish, or continental foes.

Infantry Spears

Broadly speaking, spears were either designed to be kept in hand (thrusting spears), or to be thrown (throwing spears). Within this simple classification, there were a remarkable range of types. For example, M.J. Swanton identified 30 different spearhead categories and sub-categories in Early Saxon England ^[6]. Most medieval spearheads were, however, broadly speaking, leaf shaped. Notable types of Early medieval spears include the Angon, a throwing spear with a long head like a Roman pilum used by the Franks and Anglo-Saxons and the winged (or lugged) spear, which had two prominent wings at the base of the spearhead, either to prevent the spear penetrating too far into an enemy or to aid in spear fencing ^[7]. Originally a Frankish weapon, the winged spear was also popular with the Vikings^[8]. It would become the ancestor of later medieval polearms, such as the partisan and spetum

The thrusting spear also has the advantage of reach — being considerably longer than other weapon types. Exact spear lengths are hard to deduce as few spear shafts survive archaeologically but 6ft - 8ft (1.8m - 2.5m) would seem to be the norm. Some nations were noted for their long spears, including the Scots and the Flemish. Spears were usually used in tightly ordered formations, like the shieldwall or the schiltron To resist cavalry, spear shafts could be planted against the ground^[9]. William Wallace drew up his schiltrons in a circle at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298 to deter charging cavalry^[10], but it was a widespread tactic, sometimes known as the "crown" formation^[11].

Throwing spears became rarer as the Middle Ages drew on but survived in the hands of specialists such as the Catalan Almogavars^[12]. They were commonly used in Ireland until the end of the 16th. century^[13].

Spears began to lose fashion among the infantry in the 14th. century, being replaced by pole weapons which combined the thrusting properties of the spear with the cutting properties of the axe, such as the halberd Where spears were retained they grew in length, eventually evolving into pikes which would be a dominant infantry weapon in he 16th. and 17th. centuries^[14].

Cavalry Spears

Cavalry spears were originally the same as infantry spears and were often used with two hands or held with one hand overhead. In the 11th. century, after the adoption of stirrups and a high-cantled saddle, the spear became a decidedly more powerful weapon. A mounted knight would secure the lance by holding with one hand and tucking it under the armpit (the couched lance technique)^[15]. This allowed all the momentum of the horse and knight to be focused on the weapon's tip whilst still retaining accuracy and control. This use of the spear spurred the development of the lance as a distinct weapon which was perfected in the medieval sport of jousting.

In the 14th century, tactical developments meant that knights and men-at-arms often fought on foot. This led to the practice of shortening the lance to about 5ft. (1.5m.) to make it more manageable^[16]. As dismounting became commonplace, specialist pole weapons such as the pollaxe were adopted by knights and this practice ceased^[17].

Renaissance

German reenactors of pikemen

The development of both the long, two handed pike and gunpowder in renaissance Europe saw an ever increasing focus on infantry over lance-armed cavalry. During this period many different variations on the pole-arm were developed including the halberd and the bill, again used in a similar way to a spear and designed to break through the heavy armor then worn by knights. Ultimately, the spear proper was rendered obsolete on the battlefield. As muskets became more accurate and reliable, the bayonet was devised to provide musket-men with an ersatz spear capability.

Modern Usage

Surprisingly spear hunting is still practiced, notably by retired US Air Force Colonel Gene Morris, and "Motor City Madman" Ted Nugent. Animals taken are primarily wild boar and deer, though trophy animals such as cats and big game as large as a Cape Buffalo are hunted with spears. Alligator are hunted in Florida with a type of harpoon.

Spear handling

A yari (left) in mock combat

Spears, although apparently simple weapons, have a remarkable variety of wielding methods. Some are listed here from most passive to most active motions.

Holding the spear or bracing it against the ground, a charging enemy impales themselves.
The spear is thrust out with the arms alone.
The spear is held stiffly, and the thrust is delivered by stepping forward.
The spear is thrust out with the arms while stepping forward with one or both feet.
The front hand releases as the back hand and back foot move forward to perform a long thrust.
The spear is slid through the front hand, propelled by the back hand (a similar action to using a Billiards Cue).
The spear is thrown, often at a run, releasing when the opposite foot to the throwing arm is forward.
The spear is held couched under one arm, allowing a swinging motion as well as a powerful thrust.
The spear is swung rather than thrust, causing the tip of the blade to slice open the foe's flesh. The sheer momentum built up by swinging can be enough to cause serious injury even with the blunt end. The spear can then be brought around in a stabbing motion.

This versatility led to the continued use of spears, in the form of pikes, for many years even after the invention of firearms.

Symbolism

The Japanese ronin killing a giant Miyamoto Musashinue. Print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 19th century.

More than a weapon, a spear may be a symbol of power. In the Chinese martial arts community, the Chinese spear (Qiang 槍) is popularly known as the "king of weapons". In ancient Greece it was a yoke of spears that had to be borne when submitting to an enemy. The Celts would symbolically destroy a dead warrior's spear to prevent its use by another.

Livy records that the Romans and their early enemies would force prisoners to walk underneath a 'yoke of spears', which humiliated them. It has been surmised that this was because such a ritual involved the prisoners' warrior status being taken away. In the early Roman armies the first two lines of battle, the hastati and principes, fought with swords, while the elite triarii who formed the final line fought with spears.

Odin's spear (called Gungnir) was made by the sons of Ivaldi. It had the special property that it never missed its mark. . During the War with the Vanir, Odin symbolically throws Gungnir into the Vanir host. This practice of symbolically casting a spear into the enemy ranks at the start of a fight was sometimes used in historic clashes, to seek Odin's support in the coming battle.^[18] In Wagner's opera Siegfried, the haft of Gungnir is said to be from the "World-Tree" Yggdrasil^[19]

Chiron's wedding-gift to Peleus when he married the nymph Thetis, was also an ashen spear as the nature of ashwood with its straight grain made it an ideal choice of wood for a spear.

Also in Greek Mythology Zeus' bolts of lightning can be interpreted as a symbolic spear, and some would carry that into the spear that is frequently associated with Athena, interpreting her spear as a symbolic connection to some of Zeus' power beyond the Aegis.

Another spear of religious significance was the Spear of Destiny, an artifact believed by some to have vast mystical powers.

Sir James George Frazer in The Golden Bough noted the phallic nature of the spear and suggested that in the Arthurian Legends the spear or lance functioned as a symbol of male fertility, paired with the Grail (as a symbol of female fertility).

Types of spears

Spears which are not usually thrown

Arbir
Aunurgith
Awl pike
Barchi
Boar spear
Bohemian ear spoon
Brandistock
Chimbane
Contus
Doru
Dung
Fauchard
Guandao
Halberd
Half pike
Hasta
Ji
Jousting lance

Kadji
Kamayari
Katakamayari
Kontos
Lance
Magari yari
Military fork
Mon-Gil Mon-Gil
Ox tongue
Partisan
Pike
Plançon a picot
Qiāng (槍)
Ranseur
Rifle-and-bayonet

Rummh

Sangu
Sarissa
Sibat
Spetum
Spontoon
Sudis
Su yari
Taru
Tepoztopilli
Trident
Trishula
To-ono
Xyston
Yari

Spears usually thrown

Angon
Assegai
Ballam
Bandang
Bhala
Bilari
Budiak
Cateia
Chimbane
Cirit
Do-War
Egchos
Enhero
Fal-feg
Falarica
Framea
Gravo
Golo
Granggang
Hak
Hinyan
Hoko
Huata
Irpull
Ja-Mandehi
Jaculum
Jarid
Javelin
Jiboru
Kasita

Kan-Shoka
Kannai
Koyuan
Kujolio
Kuyan
Laange
Lance-Ague
Lanza
Lama-pe
Leister
Mahee
Makrigga
Makura Yari
Mandehi liguje
Máo (矛)
Mkukt
Mongile
Mongoli
Mu-Rongal
Nage-Yari
Nandum
Nerau
One flue harpoon
Paralyser
Patisthanaya
Pelta
Pill
Pillara
Pilum
Plumbata

Sang
Sangkoh
Sanokat
Saunion
Shail
Shanen kopaton
Siligis
Short spear
Simbilan
Sinan
Sligi
Soliferrum
Spiculum
Sudanese lance
Tahr Ruan
Tao
Tawok
Telempang
Vel
Te yari
Tirrer
Tjunkuletti
Toggling harpoon
Tombak
Tschehouta
Tumpuling
Two flue harpoon
Wainian
Wallunka
Wi-Valli
Zagaye

Famous spears

Spear of Destiny or Lance of Longinus; Spear that pierced the side of Jesus.
Gungnir Spear of Odin, famous god in Norse mythology.
Amenonuhoko Spear of Izanagi and Izanami, creator gods in Japanese mythology.
Spear of Lugh or Spear of Lúin named after Lugh, a god in Irish mythology.
Gáe Bulg Spear of Cúchulainn, hero in Irish mythology.
Trishula Spear of Shiva, a Hindu god.
Octane Serpent Spear of Zhang Fei (Yide) from the Three Kingdoms period in China.
Spear of Fuchai, the spear used by Goujian's arch-rival, King Fuchai of Wu, in China.
Posiden's Trident Greek sea god's three pronged spear given to him by the undersea Cyclops, also a Roman god Neptune.
Hokenavaloha Spear or Nine Metal Spear,the spear that Gaithong the siameses hero use to kill Chalawan the Giant Werecrocodile.

Yari (Japanese Spear)

2009-10-17T03:32:00.000-07:00

Yari (槍) is the Japanese term for spear, or more specifically, the straight-headed spear. The martial art of wielding the yari is called sōjutsu. Yari measured anywhere from one meter to upwards of six meters (3.3 to 20 feet). The longer versions were called ōmi no yari while shorter ones were known as mochi yari or tae yari. The longest versions were carried by foot troops (ashigaru), while the samurai usually carried the shorter versions.

Yari were characterized by a straight blade that could be anywhere from several centimeters long, to 3 feet (0.9 meters) or more. The blades were made of the same high-quality steel that the swords and arrow-heads of samurai weapons were forged with, and yari blades were very durable. Over history many variations of the straight yari blade were produced, often with protrusion on a central blade. Yari blades (points) had extremely long tangs which were usually longer than the sharpened portion of the blade. The tang protruded into a hollow portion of the handle. This resulted in a very stiff shaft and made it nearly impossible for the blade to fall or break off.

The shaft (nakae) came in many different lengths, widths and shapes; made of hardwood and covered in lacquered bamboo strips, these came in oval, round, or polygonal cross section. These in turn were often wrapped in metal rings or wire, and affixed with a metal pommel (ishizuki) on the butt end. The yari could be considered a much higher quality weapon than the average spear due to these unique attributes. Yari handles were often decorated with inlays of metal or semiprecious materials such as brass pins, lacquer, or flakes of pearl.

A sheath for the blade called saya was also part of a complete yari.

Various types of yari points or blades existed. The most common blade was a straight, flat, design that resembles a straight-bladed double edged dagger. This type of blade could cut as well as stab and was sharpened like a razor edge. Though yari is a catchall for spear, it is usually distinguished between kama yari, which have additional horizontal blades, and simple su yari (choku-sō) or straight spears. Yari can also be distinguished by the types of blade cross section: the triangular sections were called sankaku yari and the diamond sections were called ryō-shinogi yari.

Su yari (素槍, simple spear)

The sankaku yari (三角槍, triangle spear) had a point that resembled a narrow spike with a triangular cross-section. A sankaku yari therefore had no cutting edge, only a sharp point at the end. The sankaku yari was therefore best suited for penetrating armor, even armor made of metal, which a standard yari was not as suited to.

The fukuro yari (袋槍, bag spear or socket spear) sported a more European style fitting of the straight head. Instead of the yari's traditional very long embedded tang, an entirely metal socket which slipped over the narrowed end of the pole, The unit was forged as a single piece of both socket and blade. This design was rare next to the traditional 'long-tang' configuration.

A kuda yari (管槍, tube spear) was not very different in construction than another simple choku yari. However for this spear, the upper hand gripped a hollow metal tube that allowed the yari to "screw" while being thrust. This style of sojutsu is typified in the school Owari Kan Ryū.

Kikuchi yari (菊池槍, spear of Kikuchi) were one of the rarest designs, possessing only a single edge. This created a weapon that could be used for hacking and almost resembled a straight edged naginata.

Yajiri nari yari (鏃形槍, spade-shaped spear) had a very broad "spade-shaped" head. It often had a pair of holes centering the two ovoid halves.

Kama yari (鎌槍, sickled spear)

These spears were very effective weapons though their more complex blade shapes were extremely difficult to properly forge and sharpen; therefore these were far less common than the above types and were often used for ornamental purposes.

Magari yari (曲槍, curved spear), also called jūmonji yari (十文字槍, cross-shaped spear), looked something similar to a trident or partisan and brandished a pair of curved blades around its central lance. Occasionally called maga yari in modern weaponry texts. In the Koei video game Samurai Warriors, Sanada Yukimura uses one such weapon.

The kama yari (鎌槍, sickle spear) gets its name from a peasant weapon called kama (lit. sickle or scythe). However, a kama isn't a scythe as most Westerners think of it, a giant, curved blade connected at right angles to a two-meter-long wooden handle, but rather a much smaller version, with a less dramatically curved blade and a straight wooden handle approximately two feet long.

The kata kama yari (片鎌槍, single-sided sickle spear) had a radical weapon design sporting a blade that was two-pronged. Instead of being constructed like a military fork, a straight blade (as in su yari) was intersected just below its midsection by a perpendicular blade. This blade was slightly shorter than the primary, had curved tips making a parallelogram, and was set off center so that only 1/6th of its length extended on the other side. This formed a kind of messy 'L' shape.

The tsuki nari yari (月形槍, moon-shaped spear) barely looked like a 'spear' at all. A polearm that had a crescent blade for a head, this could be used for slashing and hooking.

A kagi yari (鉤槍, hook spear) had a long blade with a side hook much like that found on a fauchard. This could be used to catch another weapon, or even dismount a rider on horseback.

Bishamon yari possessed some of the most ornate designs for any spear. Running parallel to the long central blade were two 'crescent moon' shaped blades facing outwards. They were attached in two locations by short cross bars, making the head look somewhat like a fleur-de-lis.

History

Yari are believed to have been derived from Chinese spears, and while they were present in early Japan's history they did not become popular until the thirteenth century. The original warfare of the bushi was not a thing for 'commoners'; it was a ritualized combat usually between two warriors who would challenge each other via horseback archery and sword duels. However the invasions of Mongols in 1274 and 1281 changed Japanese warfare and weaponry. The Mongol-employed Chinese and Korean footmen wielded long pikes, fought in tight formation, and moved in large units to stave off cavalry. Polearms (including naginata and yari) were of much greater military use than swords, due to their much greater range, their lesser weight per unit length (though overall a polearm would be fairly hefty), and their great piercing ability. Swords in a full battle situation were therefore relegated to emergency sidearm status from the Heian through the Muromachi periods.

Yari overtook the popularity of the daikyū for the samurai, and foot troops (ashigaru) used them extensively as well. But by the Edo period the yari had fallen into disuse: with the greater emphasis on small-scale close quarters combat and the convenience of swords (as opposed to long battlefield weapons), polearms and archery lost their practical value. During the peaceful Edo era, yari were still produced, sometimes even by good swordsmiths. They existed as a ceremonial weapon for most of this era.

Kanabō (Japanese iron staff)

2009-10-17T03:30:00.001-07:00

The kanabō (金棒) (metallic staff) is an iron or steel club used in feudal Japan as a weapon. It was constructed out of heavy oak wood, and covered with some form of metal from the end to the middle, with metal studs along the metal-shod end. Later versions were made entirely out of metal, but shorter. It was this later version that many popular pictures of Japanese demons carry. It is said to be one of the heaviest hand weapons ever wielded. The one used as a sample in the Spike TV program Deadliest Warrior weighed around 35 pounds.

Because of its sheer weight, only a few soldiers carried it. It was more of a mythical weapon, often used in tales by the great Japanese demons "oni" since the oni were extremely strong and could carry these mammoth weapons and so were feared by many superstitious people. Today there is a saying in Japanese that says, "Like giving a kanabō to an oni" — which means to give an extra advantage to someone already holding all the cards.

When used, the purpose of the kanabō was to smash enemies' armor, bones underneath and break their warhorses' legs. The art of using this cumbersome weapon, kanabō-jutsu, consisted of a mastery of both balance and strength; it required great skill to recover from a miss with the heavy club, which could leave a warrior open to a counter-attack.

Taiaha

2009-10-17T03:28:00.000-07:00

A Taiaha (pronounced [taiaha]) is a traditional weapon of the Māori of New Zealand. Usually between 5 to 6 feet in length, it is a wooden close quarters weapon used for short sharp strikes or stabbing thrusts. Its several parts are named as follow:

Arero (tongue) - this is used for stabbing the opponent and parrying
Upoko (head) - the base from which the tongue protrudes
Ate (liver) - the flattened end which is also used for striking and parrying

Mau rakau is the martial art that teaches the use of the taiaha and other Māori weapons in combat. As with other martial arts styles, students of the taiaha spends years mastering the skills of timing, balance and co-ordination necessary to wield the weapon effectively.

Modern usage

The taiaha is widely known due to its use in the wero — the traditional Māori challenge. Tradition says that when a visiting party approached a Māori pā (fortified homestead/village) they would be challenged by a warrior with a taiaha to see if they were friend or foe. A wero is commonly given to heads of state and visiting dignitaries welcomed to New Zealand.

Among modern Māori the taiaha is one of many cultural items which are used to introduce youngsters in school to some of the traditional ways. In ancient times, the taiaha, along with other weapons were used in various haka. Likewise they are also used in modern Kapa Haka competitions.

The New Zealand Army now incorporates the image of a taiaha into its official badge.

Sibat

2009-10-17T03:26:00.001-07:00

A sibat is a Filipino staff or spear, used as a weapon or tool by natives of the Philippines. It also called bangkaw, sumbling or palupad in the island of Negros.

It is typically spear made from rattan with its tip sharpened to form a point, or a head made from metal. These heads may either be single-edged, double-edged or barbed. The sibat also varies in style and function, depending on what area of the Philippines it is found. For example, the sibat used for hunting fish in beaches may not be the same as the sibat used in hunting game or wild boar in mountainous regions.

Martial arts

Since the sibat was designed for hunting prey, many fighting techniques utilizing this weapon uses motions that is similar to hunting movements. Thrusts were designed to puncture soft targets, such as the throat or neck. These attacks are reinforced by crushing blows using the blunt portions of the weapon to incapacitate at closer ranges. These attacks can be used in conjunction; a strike with the blunt portion can be used to block an enemy's weapon and then followed with a thrust into the flesh.

Some of the Filipino Martial Arts that include the use of the sibat are San Miguel Eskrima, Inayan Eskrima, Pekiti-Tirsia Kali, Doblete Rapilon and Lightning Scientific Arnis.

Sarissa

2009-10-17T03:25:00.001-07:00

The sarissa or sarisa (Greek: σάρισα) was a 4 to 7 meter (13-21 feet) long pike used in the ancient Greek and Hellenistic warfare. It was introduced by Philip II of Macedon and was used in the traditional Greek phalanx formation as a replacement for the earlier dory, which was considerably shorter. The phalanxes of Philip II of Macedon were known as Macedonian phalanxes. The sarissa, made of tough and resilient cornel wood, was very heavy for a spear, weighing over 5 kg (12 pounds). It had a short iron head shaped like a leaf and a bronze shoe (also known as a butt-spike) that would allow it to be anchored to the ground to stop charges by enemy soldiers.The bronze shoe also served to balance out the spear, making it easier for soldiers to wield. Its great length, up to eighteen feet, in two lengths that were joined in a central bronze tube, was an asset against hoplites and other soldiers bearing shorter weapons, because they had to get past the sarissas to engage the phalangites. However, outside the tight formation of the Phalanx the sarissa would have been almost useless as a weapon and a hindrance on the march.

Complicated training ensured that the phalanx wielded their sarissas in unison, swinging them vertically to wheel about, then lowering them to the horizontal. The uniform swish of the sarissas daunted the Illyrian hill tribesmen on whom the young Alexander exerted his early sortie.^[3]

The tight formation of the phalanx created a "wall of pikes", and the pike was so long that there were fully five rows of them projecting in front of the front rank of men—even if an enemy got past the first row, there were still four more to stop him. The back rows bore their pikes angled upwards in readiness, which served the additional purpose of deflecting incoming arrows. The Macedonian phalanx was considered all but invulnerable from the front, except against another such phalanx; the only way it was ever generally defeated was by breaking its formation or outflanking it.

The invention of the sarissa is credited to Philip II, father of Alexander the Great. Philip drilled his soldiers, whose morale was at first low, to use these formidable pikes with two hands. The new tactic was unstoppable, and by the end of Philip's reign the previously fragile kingdom of Macedon, once of the Hellenised periphery, controlled the whole of Greece, and Thrace.

His son, Alexander, used the new tactic across Asia, conquering Egypt, Persia and the Pauravas (northwest India), victorious all the way. The sarissa-wielding phalanxes were vital in every early battle, including the pivotal battle of Gaugamela where the Persian king's scythe chariots were utterly destroyed by the phalanx, supported by the combined use of companion cavalry and peltasts (javelineers). Alexander gradually reduced the importance of the phalanx, and the sarissa, as he modified his combined use of arms, and incorporated 'Asian' weapons and troops.

The sarissa, however, remained the backbone for every subsequent Hellenistic, and especially Diadochi army. The Battle of Raphia between the Seleucids and Ptolemy IV may represent the pinnacle of sarissa tactics, when only an elephant charge seemed able to disrupt the opposing phalanx. The Successor Kingdoms of Macedon's empire tried expanding upon Alexander's design, creating pikes as long as 22 feet, but all of these ideas were eventually abandoned in favor of the battle-tried Alexandrian sarissa. Battles often ended up stalemated in what Oliver Cromwell later described as "the terrible business of push of pike".

Subsequently, a lack of training and too great a reliance on the Phalanx instead of the combined use of arms (Alexander's and Philip's great contributions) led to the final defeat of Macedon by the Romans at the Battle of Pydna. Part of the reason for the rapid deterioration of the sarissa's ability was that, after Alexander, generals ceased to protect phalanxes with cavalry and light-armed troops, and phalanxes were destroyed too easily by flank attacks owing to the sarissa's tactical unwieldiness. The sarissa was gradually replaced by variations of the gladius as the weapon of choice. Only Pyrrhus of Epirus was able to maintain a high standard of tactical handling with armies based around the sarissa, but with the dawn of the manipular system, even he struggled for his victories.

Quarterstaff

2009-10-17T03:20:00.000-07:00

A quarterstaff is a medieval English weapon, a shaft of hardwood, sometimes with metal tips. The name is also used for the fighting staves such as the Japanese bō, Chinese gùn, or French bâton, Portuguese pau and Italian bastone.

Etymology

The origin of the weapon's name is unknown, though many suggestions are advanced with little justification. Connection to a unit of length called a "staff" is likely false. The name may come from the way that the staff is held: one hand at the center of the staff, and one hand halfway between the center and one end. However, this grip is not prescribed in early sources. Other theories link the word to the manner in which the wood is split from the tree, or to its length being equal to the wielder's height plus another quarter. It can be employed as a less-lethal weapon, so the name may refer to the act of giving quarter (showing mercy to a defeated enemy).

Description

The quarterstaff may be made from many kinds of wood, commonly ash, oak, hazel, or hawthorn. It may have metal spikes or caps at one or both ends; these are depicted or referred to in some Elizabethan and Jacobean sources. The length of the staff varies, typically ranging from 1.8 m to 2.7 m (6 to 9 feet); long staves of 3.6 to as much as 5.4 metres (12 to as much as 18 feet) were employed in Early Modern times. The weapon seems to be shorter and lighter later in history, though 3-meter staves (made of bamboo or ash wood) were employed in Victorian England.

The quarterstaff is a long two-handed club, the wood's weight distribution is even through its length though metal tips would be additional weights. It could deliver crushing blows, and be thrust like a spear. The art of using the staff was related to that of other polearms, and it was often employed as a training weapon for the latter. Moves include many different forms of blocks, thrusts, strikes, and sweeps.

History

The staff, being a simple weapon to manufacture, has a long history of use, and a wide cultural dispersion. The staff is a traditional weapon of many Asian martial arts. The quarterstaff proper was a common weapon in England, where it is featured in the Robin Hood legend as the favorite weapon of Little John. There are many tools that can easily be used as or quickly converted to a staff.

The oldest surviving treatise describing staff combat dates from the 15th Century^[1] though George Silver describes its use as being similar to that of the two handed sword. During the 1500s quarterstaves were favoured as weapons by the London Masters of Defence and by the 1700s the weapon became popularly associated with gladiatorial prize playing. A modified version of quarterstaff fencing, employing bamboo or ash staves and protective equipment adapted from fencing, boxing and cricket was revived as a sport in some London fencing schools and at the Aldershot Military Training School during the later 1800s.

A simplified form of quarterstaff fencing and training was practiced by members of the international Boy Scouts movement during the early decades of the 20th century.

Contemporary practice

The use of the quarterstaff is among the variety of traditional European weapon styles that have been revived within the historical European martial arts movement.

Glaive

2009-10-17T03:13:00.000-07:00

A glaive is a polearm consisting of a single-edged blade on the end of a pole. It is similar to the Japanese naginata and the Chinese Guan Dao. However, instead of having a tang like a sword or naginata, the blade is affixed in a socket-shaft configuration similar to an axe head. Typically, the blade was around 45 cm (18 inches) long, on the end of a pole 2 m (6 or 7 feet) long. Occasionally glaive blades were created with a small hook on the reverse side to better catch riders. Such blades are called glaive-guisarmes.

According to the 1599 treatise Paradoxes of Defense by the English gentleman George Silver, the glaive is used in the same general manner as the quarterstaff, half pike, bill, halberd, voulge, or partisan. Silver rates this class of polearms above all other individual hand-to-hand combat weapons.

Other uses

The word glaive has historically been given to several very different types of weapon.

The word glaive originated in French. Almost all etymologists derive it from either the Latin (gladius) or Celtic (*cladivos, cf. claymore) word for sword. Nevertheless, all the earliest attestations in both French and English refer to spears. It is attested in this meaning in English roughly from the 14th century to the 16th.
In the 15th century it acquired the meaning described above.
Around the same time it also began being used as a poetic word for sword (this is the main use of the word in Modern French).
In the film Krull as well as the video game Dark Sector, the word 'glaive' is used to refer to a whirling projectile blade similar in structure to a shuriken but much larger and cast and used like a chakram (a weapon much like a frisbee) or hunga munga.

Naginata

2009-10-17T03:09:00.000-07:00

Naginata (なぎなた, 薙刀) is a pole weapon that was traditionally used in Japan by members of the samurai class. It has become associated with women and in modern Japan it is studied by women more than men; whereas in Europe and Australia Naginata is practiced predominantly by men - this is however only simply a reflection of the martial arts demographics of Europe, where there is no historical association - as there is in Japan - that naginatajutsu is for women. A naginata consists of a wood shaft with a curved blade on the end; it is similar to the Chinese Guan Dao or European glaive or Russian sovnya. Usually it also had a sword-like guard (tsuba) between the blade and shaft.

The martial art of wielding the naginata is called naginatajutsu. Most Naginata practice today is in a modernised form, a gendai budō called atarashii Naginata ("new Naginata"), in which competitions also are held. Use of the naginata is also taught within the Bujinkan and in some koryū schools. Naginata practitioners may wear a form of the protective armour known as bōgu similar to that worn by kendō practitioners. Wearing the bogu means using a naginata that is a mix of light oak wood shaft, with a bamboo blade habu for atarashii Naginata.

History

A samurai wielding a naginata

The term naginata first appeared in the Kojiki in 712 AD and was used by Sohei warrior priests during the Nara Period, around 750 AD. It is most likely based on the Chinese Guan Dao. In the paintings of battlefield scenes made during the Tengyo no Ran in 936 AD, the naginata can be seen in use. It was in 1086, in the book Ōshū Gosannenki ("A Diary of Three Years in Ōshū") that the use of the naginata in combat is first recorded. In this period the naginata was regarded as an extremely effective weapon by warriors.

During the Gempei War (1180-1185), in which the Taira clan was pitted against Minamoto no Yoritomo of the Minamoto clan, the naginata rose to a position of particularly high esteem. Cavalry battles had become more important by this time, and the naginata proved excellent at dismounting cavalry and disabling riders. The widespread adoption of the naginata as a battlefield weapon forced the introduction of sune-ate (shin guards) as a part of Japanese armor. The rise of importance for the naginata can be seen as being mirrored by the European pike, another long pole weapon employed against mounted horses. An excellent example of the role of women in Japanese society and martial culture at this time is Itagaki, who, famous for her naginata skills, led the garrison of 3,000 warriors stationed at Toeizakayama castle. Ten thousand Hōjō clan warriors were dispatched to take the castle, and Itagaki led her troops out of the castle, killing a significant number of the attackers before being overpowered.

Students at Kobe Shoin Women's University wearing modern armor for naginata sparring, minus helmet and gloves.

During the Edo Period, as the naginata became less useful for men on the battlefield, it became a symbol of the social status of women of the samurai class. A functional naginata was often a traditional part of a samurai daughter's dowry. Although they did not typically fight as normal soldiers, women of the samurai class were expected to be capable of defending their homes while their husbands were away at war. The naginata was considered one of the weapons most suitable for women, as it allows a woman to keep opponents at a distance, where any advantages in height, weight, and upper body strength would be lessened.

By the 17th century the rise in popularity of firearms caused a great decrease in the appearance of the naginata on the battlefield. However, the naginata saw its final uses in combat in 1868, at Aizu, and in 1876, in Satsuma. In both cases it was used by fighting women.

Due to the influence of Westernization after the Meiji Restoration the perceived value of martial arts, the naginata included, dropped severely. It was from this time that the focus of training became the strengthening of the will and the forging of the mind and body. During the Showa period, naginata training became a part of the public school system in 1912; and it "remains a staple of girls’ physical education"^[1]

Martial arts training in Japan was banned for five years by the Allied Forces after Japan's surrender at the end of World War II. After the lifting of the ban in 1950, a modern form of naginata training, known as Atarashii naginata ("new naginata"), was developed. Since World War II, naginata has primarily been practiced as a sport with a particular emphasis on etiquette and discipline, rather than as military training.

Although associated with considerably smaller numbers of practitioners, a number of "koryu bujutsu" systems (old school martial arts) which include older and more combative forms of naginatajutsu remain existent, including Araki Ryu, Tendo Ryu, Jikishinkage ryu, Higo Koryu, Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto Ryu,Toda-ha Buko Ryu and Yoshin ryu, some of which have authorized representatives outside Japan.

In the USA, there are an estimated 200 practitioners (half male).

Construction

The naginata, like many weapons, can be customized to fit the build of the bearer. Generally, the naginata shaft is the height of the bearer's body, with the blade mounted atop usually measuring two or three shaku (one shaku is equivalent to 11.93 inches, or 303 mm) long. Unlike most polearms, the shaft is oval in cross section to allow easy orientation of the blade, and ranges from 5 to 7 feet (1.5 to 2.1 meters) long. The blade is usually curved, sometimes strongly so, towards the tip. As with Japanese swords, naginata blades were forged blades, made with differing degrees of hardness on the spine and edge to retain a sharp edge but also be able to absorb the stress of impact. Some naginata blades may, in fact, have been recycled katana blades.

Note also at the opposite end of a naginata, the ishizuki, (a metal end-cap, often spiked, which functioned as a counterweight to the blade) was attached, rendering the naginata an effective weapon whichever end was put forward.

In contemporary naginatajutsu, there are two general constructions. The first, the kihon yo, is carved from one piece of Japanese white oak and is used for the practice of katas (forms). This is quite light, and may or may not feature the tsuba between the blade and shaft sections. The second type, the shiai yo, uses a similar wooden shaft, but the blade is constructed from bamboo and is replaceable as it can break through hard contact. This type is used in atarashii naginata, the bamboo blade being a lot more forgiving on the target than a wooden or metal blade.

Many of the imitation "naginata" for sale to the public are not actually naginata at all, as may be concluded from the above details on proper construction. Specifically, these imitations have shorter, rounded shafts, very short blades, and screw-together sections.

Usage

Students at Shoin practicing naginata kata

Naginata can be used to batter, stab or hook an opponent'^[1], but due to their relatively balanced center of mass, are often spun and turned to proscribe a large radius of reach. The curved blade makes for an effective tool for cutting due to the increased length of cutting surface. In the hands of a skilled practitioner, one 5-foot (1.5 m) tall wielder could conceivably cover and attack in 380 square feet (35 m²) of open, level ground with a 5 foot (1.5 m) shaft, 3 foot (0.9 m) blade, 3 foot (0.9 m) reach.

Naginatas were often used by foot soldiers to create space on the battlefield. They have several situational advantages over a sword. Their reach was longer, allowing the wielder to keep out of reach of his opponent. The long shaft offered it more leverage in comparison to the hilt of the katana, enabling the naginata to cut more efficiently. The weight of the weapon gave power to strikes and cuts, even though the weight of the weapon is usually thought of as a disadvantage. The weight at the end of the shaft and the shaft itself can be used both offensively and defensively. Swords, on the other hand, can be used to attack faster, have longer cutting edges (and therefore more striking surface and less area to grab), and were able to be more precisely controlled in the hands of an experienced swordsman.

Famous users

Tomoe Gozen
Hangaku Gozen
Benkei
Nakano Takeko

Nagamaki

2009-10-17T03:07:00.001-07:00

The nagamaki (Japanese: 長巻, literally "long wrapping") is a Japanese pole weapon with a large and heavy blade, popular between the 12th and 14th centuries. It is very much like a glaive. It was introduced and used primarily during the Kamakura (1192–1333), Nanbokucho (1334–1392) and early Muromachi (1392–1573) periods. It was a long sword with 2–4 feet blade and a haft with 2–3 feet length. The blade was single-edged. It was also beveled along the back edge to reduce its weight. It resembles a traditional naginata, but the main difference was that the handle (tsuka) of the nagamaki was not constructed of wood; it was made more like a katana hilt. Even the name "nagamaki" ("long wrapping") is given by the tradition of handle wrapping. The nagamaki handle was wrapped with cords in criss-crossed manner, very similar to the wrapping that is made on katana. The nagamaki is considered to be a type of the no-dachi sword, a variation of the long samurai sword.

The way to hold nagamaki was also very specific. It is held with the two hands in a fixed position in the same way a katana is held. Unlike the naginata, the hands do not change when handling the weapon and the right hand was always the closest to the blade. While handling nagamaki fewer sliding actions on the handle are performed than are with the naginata, where the entire length of the shaft is used. The nagamaki was not spread and developed until much later like the naginata. During the middle of the Muromachi period (1336–1600 A.D.) it reached its peak of usage. The nagamaki is considered the favored weapon of General Oda Nobunaga.

The nagamaki is designed for large sweeping and slicing strokes. It also works as a spear. Traditionally, it was used as infantry weapon. Warriors used the weapon against horsemen. Still, it required more time and materials to create a nagamaki than spears or naginata, this is why it was not so widely spread. The closest exemplar of real nagamaki that can be seen today is nagamaki-naoshi. It appears to be like a long katana-shaped halberd, but straighter and thinner, with a very long tsuka. In contrast to it naginata is shorter, wider and more curved to the tip. The nagamaki also resembles the Song Dynasty anti-cavalry weapon, the Zhanmadao.

History

The nagamaki was developed in the middle of the Muromachi period. Today it is a rare collector’s item, and few martial arts teach its technique.

Manufacture

There are no solid rules governing the aspects of the make of the nagamaki. Unlike wakizashi, tantō, and katana, which have had history of strict measurements regarding the nagasa, and even the tsuka in some cases; the nagamaki varied in nagasa, nakago length (tang), kissaki style, et cetera. Bare nagamaki blades are of katana-length blades with typical katana-size tang (7–10 inches). The nagamaki has a very sharp edge. It is a single-edged blade. Nagamaki is a large sword.^{[citation needed]} This kind presumably could have koshirae in a tachi or katana style, as well as a nagamaki style. However there are examples of nagamaki with rather long nakago (tang), which could be fitted with a longer staff for a haft and effectively function as a naginata. All traditional Japanese swords are fitted preferably very snug and held in place with a mekugi (bamboo peg) which is fit through a mekugi-ana (hole in the tang and hilt). This is actually quite a strong mount when done correctly, and allowed for easy dismount of the bare blade. Katana most commonly had one single mekugi, and nagamaki commonly have been found with two or more mekugi. There are always variances in the mekugi. Having mekugi at all makes it legally a type of bladed samurai weapon in Japan. There are fishing tools used in Japan which would otherwise be like samurai weapons had it not been for the absence of a mekugi-type mount.

The length of blade varies on a nagamaki. However, the nagasa most commonly fits the profile of a tachi or katana blade, which would be a blade of more than 2 shaku (60.6 cm, roughly 2 feet) in length. The tsuka (hilt) seems to average at about 2.5 feet. Generally speaking, the tsuka of this weapon is a bit longer than the blade. Perhaps equal to the saya (scabbard) in length. While nagamaki means "long wrap" they have been found with no ito (cord) at all, which is very much like a long tachi handle. The tsukamaki (hilt wrap) is of even more importance when applied to the tsuka of a nagamaki. The cord helps to strengthen tsuka quite a bit. Nagamaki found without hilt wrap usually had at least metal collars around the hilt where the taint is.

Monk's Spade

2009-10-17T03:05:00.000-07:00

A monk's spade (Traditional Chinese: 月牙鏟; Simplified Chinese: 月牙铲; pinyin: yuèyáchǎn; literally "Crescent Moon Spade", Romanized Japanese: getsugasan, Hiragana: げつがさん), also called a Shaolin Spade, is a Chinese pole weapon consisting of a long pole with a flat spade-like blade on one end and a smaller crescent shaped blade on the other. In old China, Buddhist monks often carried spades (shovels) with them when travelling. This served two purposes: if they came upon a corpse on the road, they could properly bury it with Buddhist rites, and the large implement could serve as a weapon for self-defense against bandits. Over time, they were stylised into the monk's spade weapon.

Pudao

2009-10-17T03:02:00.000-07:00

The Chinese weapon known as the pudao (朴刀, literally: celtis sabre or simple sabre) was originally an edged infantry weapon which is still used for training in many Chinese martial arts. The pudao is also known as the horse-cutter sword since it was used to slice the legs out from under a horse during battle. The blade of a pudao is shaped like a Chinese broadsword, but the weapon has a longer handle usually around one and a half to two meters (about four to six feet) which is circular in cross section. It looks somewhat similar to a guandao but the difference is that a podao has a lighter and longer blade with a ring at the other end and is an infantryman's weapon while a guandao has a heavier blade with a longer haft, a pointed tip at the other end and is usually a cavalryman's weapon.

Ox Tongue Spear

2009-10-17T03:01:00.001-07:00

The ox tongue spear (langue de boeuf) was a type of broad-headed double-edged halberd that was used in Europe during the 15th century. Some designs had protrusions from the middle or base of the blades making the head similar in profile to a partisan. Primarily, it was large and heavy, used in skirmishing.

Lathi

2009-10-17T02:58:00.000-07:00

Lathi (Devanagari: लाठी) means stick and is the name of an Indian cane-fighting martial art . The word lathi means stick or cane in Hindi, Bengali and some other Indian languages. It is basically a 6 to 8-foot (2.4 m) long cane tipped with an optional metal blunt. It is the Indian Police's most used crowd control device. When referring to the weapon itself, a lathi could be considered the world’s oldest weapon.

Lathi wielders (called a lathial) need to be quick and precise. Blows can be powerful and sometimes even fatal. A good lathial must be able to fight using sticks of different lengths and thicknesses.

History

The stick is one of the world's oldest weapons. Martial artists favoured the stick for its easy accessibility and the fact that it is not necessarily lethal made it a popular self-defence implement among Hindu priests and Buddhist monks in South Asia. Lathi or cane-fighting has a long history in India where the weapon was often used to control domestic animals. Rural villagers would use the lathi to protect their flocks from thieves and in fights between herdsmen. The men of villages used to carry a lathi with them at all times. It used to help them in walking/climbing, controlling their herd, defending themselves and to carry a small parcel (called potli) with lunch etc, at one end of the lathi, while resting the lathi over the shoulder. A common Hindi saying goes "Jiski lathi, uski bhains" meaning, "He who wields the lathi gets to keep the buffalo". As the art evolved, lathi duels became especially popular in east and south Indian villages which eventually began holding regular tournaments. Village landlords would raise armies of lathial for security purposes and to settle conflicts. Local warlords would also use lathial armies to oppress and punish common people. The size of the army was an indication of the power of a warlord or landlord.

Following their conquest of India the Mughals introduced zamindar, which refers to intermediary landed elements with various levels of inheritable land rights. Lathial groups were sent to forcefully collect taxes from villagers. The zamindari system continued during British rule and wasn't abolished until after India's independence in 1947. Rich farmers and other eminent people in today's Indian villages still hire lathials for security and as a symbol of their power. Disputes in villages, when settled illegally, still involve lathi battles but this is no longer a common practice and it has largely been replaced by legal methods or, rarely, shootouts. This led to a decline in lathi as a martial art. Although lathi remains a famous sport in Indian villages, urbanisation has led to a decline of this rural martial art.

Lathi in law enforcement

The British colonists introduced lathi as a weapon for the Indian Police. This gave birth to the lathicharge, a military-style rush that uses lathi to disperse crowds. Lathi are now often used to control riots and also as a secondary weapon. In modern times, lathi is the primary weapon of the Indian riot police along with helmets, shields, tear gas and other methods. Policemen are trained in highly co-ordinated drill movements which can leave many of the rioters crippled. This drill has been quite controversial among human rights activists so in many places the police do not follow the drill but hit in such a way to disperse the crowds. Security guards and police officers often carry a lathi along with or in place of firearms. They prefer lathi for their ease of use and comparative safety and only resort to firearms in situations when lathi cannot be used efficiently.

Jogo do Pau

2009-10-16T20:25:00.000-07:00

Jogo do Pau ("stick fencing" or literally "stick (or staff) game") is a Portuguese martial art which developed in the northern regions of Portugal (Minho and Trás-os-Montes), focusing on the use of a staff of fixed measures and characteristics. The origins of this martial art are uncertain, but its purpose was primarily self-defence. It was also used to settle accounts, disputes and matters of honor between individuals, families, and even villages. While popular in the northern mountains, it was practically unknown elsewhere, and those who did practise it were taught by masters from the north.

History

The popularity of this martial art was partly due to the demeanor of the northern folk, who valued personal and family honor enough to kill for it. It was also due in no small part to the relative ease of obtaining a staff as well as the versatility of such a tool: a staff or stick was almost universally present, used as a support for the long daily walks, to help cross the rivers, by the shepherds to protect the cattle from wild animals, and so on. There are references to this martial art being used by the guerrilla against the troops of Napoleon that were occupying Portugal during the Napoleonic Wars.

Origin

Monteiro with young students

Some believe that it was influenced by an Indian dance or Indian martial art, which would have been imported and adapted in the period of the Discoveries, while there are others who say that its origins are medieval techniques of combat much similar to what is taught in the medieval book A ensinança de bem cavalgar em toda a sela ("The art of being a good horseman on any saddle") by Edward of Portugal (1391–1438). This seems more likely, since the martial art developed not in the urban areas more open to foreign influences, but in the most isolated mountain regions of continental Portugal. Whatever proves to be true, it is not related to the traditional dance of the pauliteiros of Miranda (which has ties to Asturian folklore).

The flag of the ancient school of Jogo do Pau in Ateneu

During the 19th century, Jogo do Pau was brought to Lisboa by a northern master, resulting in an amalgamation with the technique of the Gameirosabre, growing into a sportive competition, removed from actual combat. It was practiced in clubs such as the Ginásio Clube Português and the Ateneu Comercial de Lisboa.

Modern practice

In the 20th century, the practice of Jogo do Pau suffered a quick decline due to the migrations from rural areas to the cities and the greater ease in access to firearms. The players born between 1910 and 1930 were the last generation to experience the flowering of the sport. The memories of this generation provided a continuity in the 1970s, when the sport was revived. The driving force of this revival was Pedro Ferreira, followed by his student Nuno Corvello Russo, who dedicated his life's ambition to Jogo do Pau, frequently visiting the North of Portugal, getting acquainted with surviving variants there, especially with the school of Cabeceiras de Basto. He studied at the Ateneu Comercial de Lisboa, whose master is now Manuel Monteiro. Today, the sport is still rather marginal in Portugal, but there is a stable number of practitioners organized in two federations: the Federação Portuguesa de Jogo do Pau and the Federação Nacional do Jogo do Pau Português. This art is also practised in the Açores and Canary islands (palo canario).

Nunchaku

2009-10-15T23:16:00.000-07:00

Nunchaku (ヌンチャク, 双節棍, English spelling variants include numchucks, nunchucks, chucks, chain sticks) is a traditional weapon of the Okinawan kobudō weapons set and consists of two sticks connected at their ends with a short chain or rope.

Etymology

The word nunchaku comes from nun (ヌン), meaning "twin" and shaku (尺), the approximate length of each arm of the nunchaku.^{[citation needed]}

Origins

The popular belief is that the nunchaku was originally a short Southeast Asian flail used to thresh rice or soybeans (that is, separate the grain from the husk). It is possible that it was developed in response to the moratorium on edged weaponry under the Satsuma daimyo after invading Okinawa in the 17th century, and that the weapon was most likely conceived and used exclusively for that end, as the configuration of actual flails and bits are unwieldy for use as a weapon. Also, peasant farmers were forbidden conventional weaponry such as arrows or blades so they improvised using only what they had available, farm tools such as the sickle.

However, it seems that mythology surrounding the origins of nunchaku has little historical accuracy. Unlike Okinawan rice flail (utzu), original nunchaku had curved arms, resembling an Okinawan horse bit (muge), which gave rise to the theory that nunchaku was originally a horse bridle.^[1] Yet another theory asserts that it was adapted from an instrument carried by the village night watch, made of two blocks of wood joined by cord. The night watch would hit the blocks of wood together to attract people's attention and then warn them about fires and other dangers.^[2] On the other hand, associating nunchaku and other kobudo weapons with rebellious peasants is probably a part of romantic imagery. Martial arts on Okinawa were practiced exclusively by aristocracy (kazoku) and "serving nobles" (shizoku (士族)), and commoners (heimin (へいみん)) were prohibited to do so. Furthermore, Okinawan disarmament was never total; nobles were still allowed to carry their swords and members of the royal family and princes were even allowed to have rifles for hunting.^[1]

Whatever its origins were, nunchaku was probably not a popular weapon, since there's no known traditional nunchaku kata. This was possibly a result of its lack of efficiency against weapons such as sword and staff.^[3]

Anatomy

A nunchaku is two sections of wood connected by a cord or chain, though variants may include additional sections of wood and chain. Chinese nunchaku tend to be rounded, whereas the Okinawan version has an octagonal cross-section (allowing one edge of the nunchaku to make contact on the target increasing the damage inflicted). The ideal length of each piece should be long enough to protect the forearm when held in a high grip near the top of the shaft. Traditionally both ends are of equal length, although asymmetrical nunchaku exist. The ideal length for the connecting rope/chain is just enough to allow the user to lay it over his or her palm , with the sticks hanging comfortably and perpendicular to the ground. Weight balance is extremely important; cheaper or gimmicky nunchaku (such as glow-in-the-dark ones) are often not properly balanced, which prevents the artist from doing the more advanced and flashier 'low-grip' moves, such as overhand twirls. The weight should be balanced towards the outer edges of the sticks for maximum ease and control of the swing arcs.

The traditional nunchaku is made from a strong, flexible hardwood such as oak, loquat or pasania. Originally, the wood would be submerged in mud for several years, where lack of oxygen and optimal acidity prevented rotting and caused the wood to harden. The rope is made from horsehair. Finally, the wood is very finely sanded and rubbed with an oil or stain for preservation. Today, such nunchaku are often varnished or painted for display purposes. This practice tends to reduce the grip and make the weapon harder to handle, and so is not advised for a combat weapon.

The modern nunchaku can be made from any suitable material: from wood, metal, or almost any plastic or fiberglassor metal material, commonly covered with foam to prevent self-injury or the injury of others. It is not uncommon to see modern nunchaku made from light metals such as aluminum. Modern equivalents of the rope are nylon cord or metal chains on ball bearing joints. Simple nunchaku may be easily constructed from wooden dowels and a short length of chain.

The Nunchaku-Do sport, governed by the World Nunchaku Association, promotes black and yellow Styrofoam nunchaku. Unlike readily available plastic training nunchaku, the ones they promote are properly balanced.

There are some alternative nunchaku, made solely for sporting such as:

Bleeder (nunchaku with sharp or dull razor blades) and sharper (nunchaku with nails) are used as components of the basic training and grading programme (Programme Verhille) in French nunchaku de combat.^[4]
Glow-Chucks, made either with fiberglass and a coloured light fitted in the ball bearing or fluorescent tape wrapped around the sticks.
Penchaku or "Prochux", which are flashier Lissajous-do sticks available for artistic performances. These are more colourful and sometimes fluorescent with a modified anatomy which favors control in expense of power; they have longer length sticks and extremely short ropes. The idea is based on a mathematical model, the Lissajous curve, which allows the user to keep a continuous flowing form.

There are also some types of nunchaku with no sportive use noted, such as:

Nunchaku with knives, nunchaku with metal branches with a concealed blade in the end of each branch.^[5]
Telescopic Nunchaku, nunchaku with retractable metal sticks.

Formal styles

The most common martial arts to use nunchaku are the Okinawan martial arts such as some forms of karate/kobudo, but some Eskrima systems also teach practitioners to use nunchaku. For its part, Taekwondo teaches how to use one and two nunchaku. Nunchaku is a part of weapons training in Hapkido. The styles of these arts are rather different; the traditional Okinawan arts use the sticks primarily to grip and lock, while the Filipino arts use the sticks primarily for striking, while Taekwondo and Hapkido teach a little bit of both.

Bruce Lee, a Wing Chun and later Jeet Kune Do practitioner, was the most influential figure in making nunchaku popular around the world. Note that there is a difference between Bruce Lee's two-section staff (mostly known as nunchaku, but it is not). Two-section staff is derived from the three-section staff (traditional weapon), it's chain is a bit longer than the nunchaku. The way of holding the sticks are a bit different. Bruce Lee's flashy and fluid style was emulated by a number of Wushu practitioners, which gave rise to a distinctive Chinese style represented by masters such as Li Yancai.^[6]

There are some nunchaku disciplines that combine nunchaku with unarmed techniques:

Mouhébong Taekwondo combines Korean nunchaku with Taekwondo. ^[7]
Nunch-Boxing combines nunchaku with kicking and punching techniques. Nunch-Boxing itself is part of the broader discipline Nenbushi. ^[8]

In the early 80s, Kevin D. Orcutt, an American police sergeant, holder of a black belt in Jukado, developed the OPN (Orcutt Police Nunchaku) system. Since then some American law enforcement agencies employ the Nunchaku as a control weaponinstead of a straight baton, tonfa or side-handle baton, also adapted from the Kobudo weapons family. This system emphasises only a small subset of the nunchaku techniques, for speedier training^.

Nunchaku training has been noted to increase hand speed, correct posture, and condition the hands of the practitioner.

Freestyle

Freestyle nunchaku is a modern style of performance art using the nunchaku as a visual tool rather than as a weapon. With the growing prevalence of the Internet the availability of nunchaku has increased greatly, combining this with the popularity of YouTube and other video sharing sites many people have become interested in learning how to use the weapons for freestyle displays. Freestyle is one discipline of competition held by the World Nunchaku Association. Some styles of modern martial arts teach the use of nunchaku as it may help students improve their reflexes, hand control, and other skills.

Sportive associations

Since the 1980s, there have been various international sportive associations that organise the use of nunchaku as a contact sport.^[9]^[10] Current associations usually hold semi-contact fights where severe strikes are prohibited as opposed to contact fights. Full-Nunch matches, on the other hand, are limitations-free on the severity of strikes and KO is permissible.^[11]

World Amateur Nunchaku Organization (WANO): Founded by Pascal Verhille in France in 1988.
Fédération Internationale de Nunchaku de Combat et Artistique (FINCA): Founded by Raphaël Schmitz in France in 1992, as a merger of disbanded associations WANO and FFNS (Fédération Française de Nunchaku Sportif). Its current name is Fédération Internationale de Nunchaku, Combat complet et Arts martiaux modernes et affinitaires (FINCA).^[12] A fight with FINCA rules lasts 2 x 2 minutes. There is no need changing neither nunchaku branch nor hand before hitting, just a correct recuperation is asked. There is no stop during the fight except in case of loss, lifting or penalties.
World Nunchaku Association (WNA): Founded by Milco Lambrecht in the Netherlands in 1996.^[13] They use yellow and black plastic weight-balanced training nunchaku and protective headgear. They have their own belt colour system where one earns colour stripes on the belt instead of using fully coloured belts. One side of the belt is yellow, and the other black, so that in a competition, opponents may be distinguished by the visible side of the belt. WNA rules fight corresponds to the kumite subsection of Nunchaku-do discipline.^[14] It is a 2-minutes "touch fight" in which the technical abilities are very important. After each scored point, the fight stops and the fighters take back their starting position.
International Techdo Nunchaku Association (ITNA): Founded by Daniel Althaus in Switzerland in 2006. ITNA rules fight lasts 2 x 2:30 minutes. There is no stop during the round, except in case of loss, lifting or penalties. Between two strikes, the fighter has to change hand and nunchaku branch before hitting again, except if he does a block.

Legality

Possession of nunchaku is illegal in a number of countries including Belgium, Germany, Norway, Canada. and Spain. In the United Kingdom it is legal to own for martial arts purposes, although public possession is not allowed unless transporting between a place of training and a private address; its usage was, in the 1990s, censored from broadcasts of American children's TV shows, such as Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. The UK version of the Soul Blade videogame was also edited, replacing a character's nunchaku with a three-sectioned staff. In Hong Kong, it is illegal to possess metal or wooden nunchaku connected by a chain. It can be possessed by obtaining a license from the police as a martial arts instructor. Any rubber nunchakus are allowed. However, possession of nunchaku in Mainland China is legal.

Legality in Australia is also determined by individual state laws. In New South Wales, the weapon is on the restricted weapons list, and thus can only be owned with a permit.

Legality in the United States varies at state level, e.g., personal possession of nunchaku is illegal in New York, Arizona, California and Massachusetts, but in other states possession has not been criminalized. In New York, attorney Jim Maloney has brought a federal constitutional challenge to the statutes that criminalize simple in-home possession of nunchaku for peaceful use in martial-arts practice or legal home defense. As of March 2009, the case was awaiting the filing of a petition for certiorari for review by the U.S. Supreme Court.

Hook Sword

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The Hook Sword or Shuanggou (simplified Chinese: 钩; traditional Chinese: 鉤) also known as tiger-head is an exotic Chinese weapon traditionally associated with Northern styles of Chinese martial arts, but now often practiced by Southern styles as well.

Background

Reliable information on hook swords is difficult to come by. While sometimes called an ancient weapon and described as dating from the Song dynasty to Warring States or even earlier, most antique examples and artistic depictions are from the late Qing era or later, suggesting that they are actually a comparatively recent design. They were also an exclusively civilian weapon, appearing in none of the official listings of Chinese armaments. Surviving sharpened examples point to actual use as weapons, but their rarity, and the training necessary to use them, strongly suggest that they were only rarely used as such.

Characteristics

Also known as tiger hook swords or qian kun ri yue dao (literally "Heaven and Sun Moon Sword"), these weapons have a blade similar to that of the jian, though possibly thicker or unsharpened, with a prong or hook (similar to a shepherd's crook) near the tip. Guards are substantial, in the style of butterfly swords. Often used in pairs, the hooks of the weapons may be used to trap or deflect other weapons.

There are five components to the hook sword:

The back, which is used as regular swords.
The hook, which is used to trip enemies and to catch weapons, not to mention the rather more obvious use of slashing.
The end of the hilt, which is sharpened into daggers.
The crescent guard, which is used for blocking and slashing.
And the link, which is used when you have a pair. The two hooks can loosely connect together, and the wielder swings one hook sword, so in a way that the second is extended further out, almost 6 feet. While the second is in the air, the dagger upon the hilt slashes any target. In this way, the wielder can extend his/her reach out from three feet to six.

Use

Routines for hook swords are taught in such Northern schools as Northern Shaolin and Seven-Star Mantis, and in some schools of Southern arts such as Choy Lay Fut. Modern routines for hook swords are often very flashy, and may involve techniques such as linking paired weapons and wielding them as a single long, flexible weapon. Some schools of Baguazhang also teach a similar weapon, often called "Deer Horn Knives" or "Mandarin Duck Knives." These weapons typically feature a much shorter or entirely missing main hook, and instead focus on the various cutting and stabbing blades arranged around the guard.

Chicken Sickles

2009-10-15T23:05:00.000-07:00

The Chicken Sickles (Traditional 鷄鐮 Simplified 鸡鐮) are a number of Chinese bladed weapons similar to the Hook sword and the Okinawan Kama. They can be used as a single or double weapon. It is considered the special weapon of the Xinyi Liuhe style.

Chicken-claw

Jī Zhuǎ Lián (Traditional 鷄爪鐮 Simplified 鸡爪鐮 – “Chicken-Claw Sickle”). The chicken-claw sickle was constructed from a chicken claw-like piece of metal, along with a spear head, on a length of stick. Its length was about 1.5 ft. The details of this weapon are unknown.

This sickle is more similar in appearance to the Okinawan Kama, with the addition of a spear head.

Chicken-saber

Jī Dāo Lián (Traditional 鷄刀鐮 Simplified 鸡刀鐮 – “Chicken-Saber Sickle”). This weapon was also called the Kǔn Huā Yāo Zi (Traditional 綑花腰子 Simplified 捆花腰子 – “Binding Flower Waist Carry"). The reason for this optional name is unknown. According to legend, this weapon was created by the founder of Xinyi, Ji Long Feng (姬隆丰), and it became the special weapon of this style. It was made from metal and its length was about 2.5 Chi [32 inches].”^[1]^[2]

This sickle is more similar in appearance to the Hook sword and has a double-edge like a Jian. There are several variations of this weapon. All have the distinctive hook and chicken "spur" on the head, but the sword blade is sometimes shortened to a small metal pole-arm. (example) It is used for close-quarters combat.

One noted practitioner of the Chicken-Saber Sickles was Xinyi Liuhe Grandmaster Lu Songgao (卢嵩高) (d. 1962), one of the "Three Heroes from Zhoukou".^[3]^[4] Xinyi Liuhe and Wu style Taichi master Dr. Stephen Yan (Yan Zhi Yuan), weapons champion of the First National Xinyi Liuhe Competition held in Henan Province in 2000, is pictured below wielding the Chicken-Sabers.

Photos

Drawing of the "Chicken-Claw Sickles".	Shaolin Monk Shi De Jian playing a variation of the Chicken-Claw with an extra “moon-spade” hand guard. © Kung Fu Magazine	Close up picture of the full-size “Chicken-Saber Sickle”. © http://www.tai-chi.co.nz	Double Chicken-Sabers. © http://www.tai-chi.co.nz
Xinyi Liuhe Master Dr. Stephen Yan (Yan Zhi Yuan) showing a series of Chicken-Saber stances. © http://www.tai-chi.co.nz	© http://www.tai-chi.co.nz	© http://www.tai-chi.co.nz	© http://www.tai-chi.co.nz
Shaolin Monk Shi De Cheng playing a variation of the Chicken-Saber. © russbo.com

Rondel Dagger

2009-10-15T23:03:00.001-07:00

A rondel dagger (pronounced /ˈrɒndəl/) or roundel dagger was a type of stiff-bladed dagger in Europe in the late Middle Ages (from the 14th century onwards), used by a variety of people from merchants to knights. It was worn at the waist and might be used as a utility tool, or worn into battle or a jousting tournament as a side-arm.

Structure

The basic form of a rondel dagger

The blade was typically long and slim, measuring 12 inches (30 cm) or more; the whole dagger might be as long as 20 inches (50 cm). Rondel means round or circular; the dagger gets its name from its round (or similarly shaped, e.g. octagonal) hand guard and round or spherical pommel (knob on the end of the grip).

The blade was stiff, made from steel, and the tang extended through the handle, which was cylindrical, normally carved wood or bone. In profile, the blade was usually diamond-shaped, lenticular, or triangular. These blades would have a sharpened point, and either one or both edges would also be sharpened. They were principally designed for use with a stabbing action, either underarm, or over arm with a reverse grip (think ice pick). They would also have been used for cutting. The long straight blade would not have lent itself to a slashing or sabre action. Rondel daggers were ideal in battle for puncturing chain mail, and although they would not have been able to punch through plate armour, they could be forced between the joints in a suit of armour and helmets. This was often the only way in which a heavily armoured knight could be killed.

A few examples also exist of four-edged rondel daggers, the blade having a cruciform profile. These blades would not have been suited for cutting, or use as a general utility tool; they would have been worn as a side-arm in battle. The rondel daggers which have survived and found their way into museums and collections are usually those with fine craftsmanship and often ornate decoration. The blades may be engraved, the grips ornately carved, and the hand guards and pommels highly decorated.

Usage

Merchants wearing rondels (uncropped version)

In a scene from a miniature by Girat de Roussillon depicting the construction of twelve churches in France (c. 1448), merchants and tradesmen can be seen wearing rondel daggers at their waists. Before the 1400s, daggers were actually a peasant's weapon. However, in the 15th century they became the standard side-arm for knights, and would have been carried into battles such as the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. They were a knight's backup weapon to be used in hand to hand fighting, and as such one of their last lines of defence. Since they were able to penetrate a suit of armour (at the joints, or through the visor of the helmet), rondel daggers could be used to force an unseated or wounded knight to surrender, for a knight might fetch a good ransom. Daggers may also have been thrown at unseated enemy knights to force them to engage in battle, though a mace was perhaps better suited to this task.

Gun (Chinese Staff)

2009-10-15T23:02:00.000-07:00

The Chinese word gun (Chinese: 棍; pinyin: gùn) refers to a long Chinese staff weapon used in Chinese martial arts. It is known as one of the four major weapons, along with the qiang (spear), dao (sabre), and the jian (sword), called in this group "The Grandfather of all Weapons".

Variants

Schematic representation of the three main chinese martial arts staffs

There are various kinds of gun, and they include the following:

Monkey staff (Chinese: 猴棍; pinyin: hóugùn)
Biangan (Chinese: 鞭杆; pinyin: biāngān)
Mad demon staff (simplified Chinese: 疯魔棍; traditional Chinese: 瘋魔棍; pinyin: fēngmó gùn)
Tianqi staff (simplified Chinese: 天齐棍; traditional Chinese: 天齊棍; pinyin: tiānqí gùn)
Staff of five tigers and goat herds (Chinese: 五虎群羊棍; pinyin: wǔ hǔ qún yáng gùn)
Nunchaku (simplified Chinese: 二节棍; traditional Chinese: 雙節棍; pinyin: èrjié gùn; literally "two section staff")
Taiji staff of thirteen (simplified Chinese: 太极十三秆; traditional Chinese: 太極十三杆; pinyin: tàijí shísān gǎn)
Taiji Quarterstaff (simplified Chinese: 太极大秆; traditional Chinese: 太極大杆; pinyin: tàijí dà gǎn)
Taiji staff (simplified Chinese: 太极棍; traditional Chinese: 太極棍; pinyin: tàijí gùn)
Staff of eight fairies (Chinese: 八仙棍; pinyin: bāxiān gùn)
Bagua seven star rod (Chinese: 八卦七星竿; pinyin: bāguà qīxīng gān)
Flail (simplified Chinese: 梿枷; traditional Chinese: 槤枷; pinyin: liánjiā)

The types of gun normally used nowadays for exercises and competitions are the bailangan (simplified Chinese: 白栏杆; traditional Chinese: 白欄杆; pinyin: bái lángān) and the nangun (Chinese: 南棍; pinyin: nángùn).

Traditionally, the gun is made out of a material called wax wood, rather than bamboo as many people might think. Wax wood is strong, yet flexible, making it ideal as a material for the gun. The gun is fashioned with one thick end as the base and a thinner end near the tip, and is cut to be about the same height as the user. Today, more modern versions may be purchased made with metal and rubber parts.

Zhanmadao

2009-10-15T22:58:00.000-07:00

The zhanmadao (斬馬刀) (zhǎn mǎ dāo) (lit.chopping horse saber) was a single-bladed Chinese sword of the Song Dynasty.

General characteristics

The zhanmadao is a sabre with a single long broad blade, and a long handle suitable for two-handed use.

Dating to 1072, it was used as an anti-cavalry weapon. This is mentioned in the "Wu Jing Zong Yao Song Military Manual" from 1072 (see external article).

Surviving examples include a sword that might resemble a nagamaki in construction; it had a wrapped handle 37 centimetres long making it easy to grip with two hands. The blade was 114 centimetres long and very straight with a slight curve in the last half.

Similar weapons

Possible variations of these Chinese swords were the changdao, miao dao, and wodao.

The sword may have been the inspiration for the Zanbatō as both have been said to have been used for killing the horse and rider in one swing.

In the Western world, swords of an equivalent size such as the Zweihander may have been used to batter into formations of pikemen or to cut out the front legs of a galloping horse - though the historical accuracy of this information is also a matter of debate.

Dao (China Saber)

2009-10-15T22:54:00.000-07:00

Dao (Chinese: 刀; pinyin: dāo; Wade-Giles: tao¹, "knife") is a category of single-edge Chinese swords primarily used for slashing and chopping (sabres), often called a broadsword in English translation because some varieties have wide blades. In China, the dao is known as one of the four major weapons, along with the Gun (staff), Qiang (spear), and the Jian (sword), and referred to as "The General of All Weapons". Dao is actually a generic word used to denote any member of a family of single-edged, broad-bladed cutting or slicing tools, but in common, everyday usage means knife. The weapon, also known as dan dao 單刀 (single knife) when just one is used, is thereby thought to be an adaptation of the kitchen knives common to Chinese cuisine. Dao also appears in the names of such polearms as the pudao and guan dao, indicating that their blades were primarily intended for slashing and cutting attacks rather than stabbing ones.

General characteristics

While dao have varied greatly over the centuries, most single-handed dao of the Ming period and later, and the modern swords that are based (sometimes loosely) on them share a number of characteristics. Dao blades are moderately curved and single-edged, though often with few inches of the back edge sharpened as well; the moderate curve allows them to be reasonably effective in the thrust. Hilts are canted, curving in the opposite direction as the blade which improves handling in some forms of cuts and thrusts. Cord is usually wrapped over the wood of the handle. Hilts may also be pierced like those of jian (straight-bladed Chinese sword) for the addition of lanyards, though modern swords for performances will often have tassels or scarves instead. Guards are typically disc-shaped often with a cupped shape to prevent rainwater from getting into the sheath, and to prevent blood from dripping down to the handle, making it more difficult to grip. Sometimes guards are thinner pieces of metal with an s-curve, the lower limb of the curve protecting the user's knuckles; very rarely they may have guards like those of the jian.

Other variations to the basic pattern include the large bagua dao and the long handled pudao.

Dao as seen in contemporary wushu.

Early history

The earliest dao date from the Shang Dynasty in China's Bronze Age, and are known as zhibei dao (直背刀) - straight backed knives. As the name implies, these were straight-bladed or slightly curved weapons with a single edge. Originally bronze, these would be made of iron or steel by the time of the late Warring States. Originally less common as a military weapon than the jian - the straight, double-edged blade of China - the dao became popular with cavalry during the Han dynasty due to its sturdiness and superiority as a chopping weapon. Soon after dao began to be issued to infantry, beginning the replacement of the jian as a standard-issue weapon.^[1]^[2]

During the Tang Dynasty, dao were exported to both Korea and Japan, influencing the swordsmithing of both nations.^[3] The blades of Tang era dao are reminiscent of the Japanese chokuto or the popular image of the perhaps-mythical ninjato.

During the Song Dynasty, one form of infantry dao was the shoudao, a chopping weapon with a clip point. While some illustrations show them as straight, the 11th century Song military encyclopedia Wujing Zongyao depicts them with curved blades - possibly an influence from the steppe tribes of Central Asia, who would conquer parts of China during the Song period. Also dating from the Song are the falchion-like dadao^[4], the long, two-handed zhanmadao^[5], and the long-handled, similarly two-handed buzhandao (步战刀).

Yuan, Ming and Qing

One of the Qianlong Emperor's Imperial Guards Brigade (1760) carrying his archery equipment and wearing a sheathed dao. Notice the lanyard through the handle.

The Mongols invaded in the early 13th century in the process of creating the second largest land empire in history. The Yuan dynasty of the Mongols influenced China and other nations considerably, particularly in the tools and tactics of war. A favored weapon of the Mongol cavalry was the sabre: this simple, one handed, curved blade had been used by the Turkic and Tungusic tribes of Central Asia probably since the 8th century at least.^{[citation needed]} Its effectiveness for mounted warfare and popularity among soldiers across the entirety of the Mongol empire had lasting effects. The Persian shamshir, the Indian talwar, the Afghani pulwar, the Turkish kilij, the Arabian saif, the Mamluk "scimitar", and the European sabre (adopted via Hungary's Magyar horsemen) and cutlass are perhaps descended from the Turko-Mongol curved blade.^{[citation needed]}

In China, Mongol influence lasted long after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty at the hands of the Ming, continuing through both the Ming and the Qing dynasties (the latter itself founded by a steppe people, the Manchu), furthering the popularity of the dao and spawning a variety of new blades. Blades with greater curvature became popular, and these new styles are collectively referred to as pei dao. During the mid-Ming these new sabers would completely replace the jian as a military-issue weapon.^[6] The four main types of pei dao are:^[7]^[8]

yanmao dao, or "goose-quill sabre." This weapon, similar to the earlier zhibei dao, is largely straight, with a curve appearing at the center of percussion near the blade's tip. This allows for thrusting attacks and overall handling similar to that of the jian, while still preserving much of the dao's strengths in cutting and slashing.^[9]
liuye dao, the "willow leaf saber." The most common form of Chinese sabre, this weapon features a moderate curve along the length of the blade. This weapon became the standard sidearm for both cavalry and infantry, and is the sort of sabre originally used by many schools of Chinese martial arts.^[10]
pian dao, "slashing sabre." A deeply curved dao meant for slashing and draw-cutting, this weapon bears a strong resemblance to the shamshir and scimitar. A fairly uncommon weapon, it was generally used by skirmishers in conjunction with a shield.^[11]
niuweidao, the "oxtail sabre." A heavy bladed weapon with a characteristic flaring tip, this is the archetypal "Chinese broadsword" of kung fu movies today. It is first recorded in the early 1800s (the late Qing dynasty) and only as a civilian weapon; there is no record of it being issued to troops, and it does not appear in any listing of official weaponry; its appearance in movies and modern literature is thus often anachronistic.^[7]^[12]

Besides these four types of dao, the duan dao or "short dao" was also used, this being a compact weapon generally in the shape of a liuye dao.^[13] The dadao saw continued use, and during the Ming dynasty the large two-handed changdao and zhanmadao were used both against the cavalry of the northern steppes and the pirates of the southeast coast; these latter weapons (sometimes under different names) would continue to see limited use during the Qing period.^[14] Also during the Qing there appear weapons such as the nandao, regional variants in name or shape of some of the above dao, and more obscure variants such as the "nine ringed broadsword," which were likely invented for street demonstrations and theatrical performances rather than for use as weapons.

The Chinese spear and dao (liuyedao and yanmaodao) were commonly issued to infantry due to the expense of and relatively greater amount of training required for the effective use of Chinese straight sword, or jian. Dao can often be seen depicted in period artwork worn by officers and infantry.

During the Yuan dynasty and after, some aesthetic features of Persian, Indian, and Turkish swords would appear on dao. These could include intricate carvings on the blade and "rolling pearls": small metal balls that would roll along fuller-like grooves in the blade.^[15]

Recent history

Chinese soldiers wielding dao.

Some of the blades from the Qing Dynasty lived on and even had descendants see military action in the 20th century. The dadao was used by some Chinese militia units against Japanese invaders in the Second Sino-Japanese War, as was the miao dao, a descendant of the changdao. These were used during planned ambushes on Japanese troops because the Chinese military and patriotic resistance groups often had more willing soldiers than firearms.

Most Chinese martial arts schools still train extensively with the dao, seeing it as a powerful conditioning tool and a versatile weapon, with self defense techniques transferable to similarly sized objects more commonly found in the modern world, such as canes, baseball or cricket bats, for example. There are also schools that teach double broadsword shuang dao 雙刀, forms and fencing, one dao for each hand.

One measure of the proper length of the sword should be from the hilt in your hand and the tip of the blade at the brow and in some schools, the height of shoulder. Alternatively, the length of the sword should be from the middle of the throat along the length of the outstretched arm. There are also significantly larger versions of dao used for training in some Baguazhang and Taijiquan schools.

Chinese Swords

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Chinese swords have a long history in China. Stone swords were used in prehistoric times.Bronze swords have been traced back to the bronze daggers of the Western Zhou period, but did not come into common use until the Eastern Zhou period. Bronze long swords suddenly appeared during the mid-third century BC. Later swords were made of iron or steel. These metals were wrought, never cast. Swords commonly reached a length of 70-100 cm, although longer swords have been found. Chinese iron swords were used in Japan from the third to sixth century AD, but were replaced with Korean and native Japanese swords by the middle of the Heian era.

Chinese group all swords into two types, Jian (劍) and Dao (刀). Jian are dual edged and Dao are single edged.

Technical development

Chinese swords from the Warring States to Song Dynasty

Late Spring and Autumn to Early Warring States (500BC - 350BC)

1) Non-laminated bronze jian are well developed at this time. Appearance of the earliest laminated bronze jian where they utilize bronze with higher tin content for the cutting edges and bronze with lower tin content for the spine. It results in a sword with harder cutting edges and a more flexible spine to absorb shock

2) Extensive use of copper sulphides as anti-corrosion coatings on the bronze jian

3) Earliest iron and steel jian also appear, made by the earliest and most basic forging and folding techniques

4) World's earliest book on alloys, "The Artificers' Record" is written, with an explicit statement on the percentage composition of the metals used in the Chinese bronze jian

Middle and Late Warring States (350BC - 221BC)

1) Steel jian get longer to 1 meter or slightly more, with longer handles for 2-handed use (though there are a few jian excavated that range from 1.2 to 1.4 meters)

2) Bronze jian also become longer to about 80 cm plus (earlier jian before have an average length of 60 cm and below)

Qin Dynasty (221BC - 207BC)

1) Bronze jian become even longer, reaching over 90 cm in length and the handle is extended to be long enough for 2-handed use

2) Use of chromium oxide as an anti-corrosion protective coating on the bronze jian. This process originates way back from 700 BC. This invention was long lost for 2000 years before modern similar processes were developed during our era in 1937 and the 1950s by Germans and Americans respectively

3) The manufacture of steel jian that are 1 meter or longer is continued

Early to Middle Han Dynasty (206BC - 0 AD)

1) Longer steel jian of length 1.2 meters or more are common

2) Introduction of bronze dao, followed by steel dao. Steel dao are as long as their steel double-edge counterparts

3) Differential heat-treatment implemented on steel blades. This was to become a standardized process for the construction of Chinese blades for the next 2000 years

4) The prototype process of forging and folding sword blanks to improve the quality of the steel is further developed. This particular process of forging and folding the sword blanks was to be perfected by the Middle Han (known as the "refinings" process) to become a standardized process for later blades for almost 2000 years

5) The introduction of ring pommels on bronze and steel jian and dao

6) Earliest introduction of the tunkou (metal collar at the forte), made of bronze or copper

Middle to Late Han Dynasty (0 AD - 220AD)

1) Bronze jian and dao, as well as steel jian are completely replaced by steel dao

2) Forge-welding / lamination (using higher carbon steel for the cutting edge and lower carbon steels for the core or sandwich plates, depending on the design) introduced, a standardized process for later Chinese blades for almost 2000 years

3) Perfection of the forging and folding process resulting in blades being graded as thirty, fifty, and one hundred "refinings". The higher the number, the better the blade's quality. This is the "refinings" process mentioned earlier. It was also most likely transmitted to Korea

4) Earliest bronze and steel dao exported to Korea and Japan

5) Use of white rayskin on the weapons' handle-grips introduced on Imperial Regulation blades

Early Three Kingdoms to Late Sui Dynasty (220 - 618)

1) Continued use of the highly advanced "refinings" process

2) Use of clay for differential heat-treatment introduced; we do not know specifically when --- it was invented sometime between 200BC - 500AD

3) The development of the ridged cross-section (known later to the Japanese as kiriha-zukuri and shinogi-zukuri) in the dao, probably sometime between 100AD to 300AD

4) Introduction of the Sassanian/Persian style suspension mounts on Chinese dao

5) Probable introduction of Damascus wootz steel for use in jian from India or the Middle-East

Tang Dynasty (618 - 907)

1) Swordmaking continues to progress in the Tang, maintaining the steady progress ever since the Han Dynasty

2) Use of ring pommels discontinued in the Middle Tang

3) Earliest use of disc-shaped guards to better protect the hand introduced in the Middle Tang

4) Mass importation of quality Chinese blades to Japan in the Middle Tang

5) Migration of Chinese and Korean swordsmiths to Japan where they transmitted their skills. Japanese smiths learn from these smiths the processes of: a) forge-welding / laminated construction b) ridged cross-sections (consisting of 2 variants known to the Japanese as kiriha-zukuri and shinogi-zukuri) c) differential heat-treatment using clay d) repeated forging and folding of sword blanks to enhance the quality of the steel ("refinings" process)

Song Dynasty (960 - 1279)

1) Technical quality of Chinese weapons reaches a new high under Emperor Shenzong, a continuation from the Tang. Multiple weapons quality assessment bureaus are setup. A manual on weapons manufacture and quality control, "Weapons' Laws and Methods" is compiled and distributed to the relevant government bodies

2) Under Emperor Shenzong, the horse-chopping backsword, or "zhanmadao", a heavy 2-handed backsword used by anti-cavalry infantry is introduced in 1072AD. (If Song dimensions are exactly the same as the Tang, this backsword should be slightly in excess of 1.2 meters) This weapon is stout and massive to chop through heavy armour and continued to be in use in the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties

3) Use of ring pommels reintroduced

4) The importation of top quality, expensive and luxurious Japanese blades and Damascus wootz blades (from the Arab world??) to China as collectors' items, works of art

5) Near late Song and after, Mongols invade Japan twice, continental blades (ie Chinese, Korean and other makes) are perceived by the Japanese as stouter, compared to their own native blades, prompting them to forge blades with thicker backs and bigger points

Yuan Dynasty (1279 - 1368)

1) The use of the Turko-Mongol saber is introduced into China, where it became the ancestor of the willow leaf and goosequill dao (liuyedao and yanmaodao) of the Ming and Qing dynasties, used by civilians and military men alike

2) Use of rayskin to act as protective and decorative scabbard wrapping introduced

Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644)

1) In early Ming, the process of making twist-core Damascus steel is transmitted to the Chinese sword-making world, most likely from Indonesia and the Southern Philippines (thanks to Philip Tom's hypothesis)

2) Use of clay in differential heat-treatment is not as common as in the Tang, smiths seem to prefer the non-clay method

3) Mass importation of Japanese swords (Wodao) to China in the early Ming

4) Revival in the use of the ridged cross-section (a specific type known as shinogi-zukuri to the Japanese) in Chinese dao, spurred by exposure to Japanese swords used by the pirates

5) By the middle-to-late Ming, technical quality of Chinese dao made for northern border soldiers has been compromised by inferior workmanship, resulting in these dao being of poor quality. General Qi Jiguang specifies higher standards to bring quality up (Chang dao)

Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911)

1) New achievements and progress in sword-making (and various types of handicraft such as works in wood, glass, metal, jade, porcelain etc) achieved under Emperor Qianlong, a great improvement compared to the decline in the Middle Ming

2) Under him, a most comprehensive document titled "Illustrated Regulations for the Ceremonial Paraphernalia of the Qing Dynasty" was compiled, and it records and standardizes various characteristics of the dao worn by the various ranks of civil and military officials, amongst other things

3) A comprehensive document titled "Weapons Workmanship Standards" is compiled (probably around the same time as the above document) and stipulates the manufacture and quality control of Chinese dao, polearms etc

4) Occasional use of the ridged cross-section seen on Qing period dao

5) Appearance of the oxtail dao (niuweidao) in the late Qing, where it was used exclusively by civilians and not by the Qing military

Recent History (post-1911)

Sword types

Name	Era	Description
Butterfly sword		(Traditional Chinese: 蝴蝶雙刀; Simplified Chinese: 蝴蝶双刀; Pinyin: húdié shuāng dāo; lit. Butterfly Pair (or) Double Sword) are sometimes called butterfly knives in English. It was originally from the South of China, though it has seen use in the North. It is usually wielded in pairs, and has short dāo (single-edged blade), with a length is approximately that of the forearm. This allows for easy concealment within the sleeves or inside boots, and for greater manoeuvrability to spin and rotate in close-quarters fighting.
Changdao	Ming Dynasty	(simplified Chinese: 长刀; traditional Chinese: 長刀), literally meaning "long knife," was a type of anti-cavalry sword used in China during the Ming Dynasty. Sometimes called Miao dao (a similar but more recent weapon), the blade greatly resembles a Japanese ōdachi in form.
Dao		(Chinese: 刀; pinyin: dāo; Wade-Giles: tao¹, "knife") is a category of single-edge Chinese swords primarily used for slashing and chopping (sabres), often called a broadsword in English translation because some varieties have wide blades. In China, the dao is known as one of the four major weapons, along with the Gun (staff), Qiang (spear), and the Jian (sword), and referred to as "The General of All Weapons". Dao is actually a generic word used to denote any member of a family of single-edged, broad-bladed cutting or slicing tools, but in common, everyday usage means knife. The weapon, also known as dan dao 單刀 (single knife) when just one is used, is thereby thought to be an adaptation of the kitchen knives common to Chinese cuisine. Dao also appears in the names of such polearms as the pudao and guan dao, indicating the knifelike nature of their blades.
Dadao		The Dadao (大刀) (lit. Big Knife), one of the varieties of dao or Chinese saber, is also known as the Chinese great sword. Based on agricultural knives, dadao have broad blades generally between two and three feet long, long hilts meant for "hand and a half" or two-handed use, and generally a weight-forward balance.
Guandao		A guandao or kwandao is a type of Chinese pole weapon that is currently used in some forms of Chinese martial arts. It's named Guandao after the famous late general Guan Yu from Romance of three kingdom. In Chinese it is properly called a 偃月刀 yan yue dao ("reclining moon blade"), the name under which it always appears in texts from the Song to Qing dynasties such as the Wujing Zongyao and Huangchao Liqi Tushi. It is comparable to a European fauchard and consists of a heavy blade with a spike at the back and sometimes also a notch at the spike's upper base that can catch an opponent's weapon. In addition there are often irregular serrations that lead the back edge of the blade to the spike. The blade is mounted atop a 5-6 foot long wooden or metal pole with a pointed metal counter weight used to balance the heavy blade and for striking on the opposite end. The blade is very deeply curved and therefore unlike most polearms, solely useful for sweeping cuts where it relies on range and power.
Hook sword		The hook sword is an exotic Chinese weapon traditionally associated with Northern styles of Chinese martial arts, but now often practised by Southern styles as well.
Jian		The jian is a double-edged straight sword used during the last 2,500 years in China. The first Chinese sources that mention the jian date to the 7th century BC during the Spring and Autumn Period;^[4] one of the earliest specimens being the Sword of Goujian. Historical one-handed versions have blades varying from 45 to 80 centimeters (17.7 to 31.5 inches) in length. The weight of an average sword of 70-centimeter (28-inch) blade-length would be in a range of approximately 700 to 900 grams (1.5 to 2 pounds). There are also larger two-handed versions used for training by many styles of Chinese martial arts. In Chinese folklore, it is known as "The Gentleman of Weapons" and is considered one of the four major weapons, along with the Gun (staff), Qiang (spear), and the Dao (sabre).
Liuyedao		The liuye dao, or "willow leaf saber", is a type of dao that was commonly used as a military sidearm for both cavalry and infantry during the Ming and Qing dynasties. This weapon features a moderate curve along the length of the blade. This reduces thrusting ability (though it is still fairly effective at same) while increasing the power of cuts and slashes.
Miao dao	Republican	The Miao Dao (苗刀) is a Chinese two-handed dao or saber of the Republican era, with a narrow blade of up to 1.2 meters or more and a long hilt. The name means "sprout saber", presumably referring to a likeness between the weapon and a newly sprouted plant. While the miao dao is a recent weapon, the name has come to be applied to a variety of earlier Chinese long sabers, such as the zhanmadao and changdao. Along with the dadao, miao dao were used by some Chinese troops during the second Sino-Japanese War.
Nandao		Nandao is a kind of sword that is nowadays used mostly in contemporary Chinese wushu exercises and forms. It is the southern variation of the "northern broadsword", or Beidao. Its blade bears some resemblance to the butterfly sword, also a southern Chinese single-bladed weapon; the main difference is the size, and the fact that the butterfly swords are always used in pairs
Niuweidao	late Qing Dynasty	A type of Chinese saber (dao) of the late Qing Dynasty period. It was primarily a civilian weapon, as Imperial troops were never issued it.
Piandao	late Ming Dynasty	A type of Chinese sabre (dao) used during the late Ming Dynasty. A deeply curved dao meant for slashing and draw-cutting, it bore a strong resemblance to the shamshir and scimitar. A fairly uncommon weapon, it was generally used by skirmishers in conjunction with a shield.
Pudao		(撲刀, literally: assault sabre) was originally an edged military weapon which is still used for training in many Chinese martial arts. The pudao is also known as the horse-cutter sword since it was used to slice the legs out from under a horse during battle. The blade of a pudao is shaped like a Chinese broadsword, but the weapon has a longer handle usually around one and a half to two meters (about four to six feet) which is circular in cross section.
Wodao	Ming Dynasty	(倭刀, literally "sword/knife of the wo people") is a Chinese sword from the Ming Dynasty. Apparently influenced by Japanese sword design, it bears a strong resemblance to a Tachi or Odachi in form: extant examples show a handle approximately 25.5 cm long, with a gently curved blade 80 cm long.
Yanmaodao	Late Ming—Qing dynasties	The yanmao dao, or "goose-quill saber", is a type of dao made in large numbers as a standard military weapon from the late Ming through the end of the Qing dynasty. It is similar to the earlier zhibei dao, is largely straight, with a curve appearing at the center of percussion near the blade's tip. This allows for thrusting attacks and overall handling similar to that of the jian, while still preserving much of the dao's strengths in cutting and slashing.
Zhanmadao	Song Dynasty.	(斬馬刀) (zhǎn mǎ dāo) (lit. chopping horse saber) was a single long broad bladed sword with a long handle suitable for two-handed use. Dating to 1072, it was used as an anti-cavalry weapon.

Jian

2009-10-15T22:40:00.000-07:00

The jian is a double-edged straight sword used during the last 2,500 years in China. The first Chinese sources that mention the jian date to the 7th century BCE during the Spring and Autumn Period; one of the earliest specimens being the Sword of Goujian. Historical one-handed versions have blades varying from 45 to 80 centimeters (17.7 to 31.5 inches) in length. The weight of an average sword of 70-centimeter (28-inch) blade-length would be in a range of approximately 700 to 900 grams (1.5 to 2 pounds). There are also larger two-handed versions used for training by many styles of Chinese martial arts.

In Chinese folklore, it is known as "The Gentleman of Weapons" and is considered one of the four major weapons, along with the Gun (staff), Qiang (spear), and the Dao (sabre).

Parts of the jian

A guard or hilt protects the hand from an opposing blade. The shape of the guard can be described as short wings pointing either forward or backward. A minority of jian featured the disc-shaped guards associated with dao. A handle behind the guard can accommodate the grip of both hands or one hand plus two or three fingers of the other hand. Two-handed jiàn of up to 1.6 meters (65") in length, known as shuangshou jian, existed but were not as common as the one-handed version. The longer two-handed handle could be used as a lever to lock the opponent's arm if necessary. Grips are usually of fluted wood or covered in rayskin, with a minority being wrapped with cord.

The end of the handle was finished with a pommel for balance, to prevent the handle from sliding through the hand if the hand's grip should be loosened, and for striking or trapping the opponent as opportunity required — such as in "withdrawing" techniques. The pommel was historically peened onto the tang of the blade; thereby holding together as one solid unit the blade, guard, handle, and pommel. Most jian of the last century or so are assembled with a threaded tang onto which the pommel or pommel-nut is screwed.

Sometimes a tassel is attached to the hilt. During the Ming Dynasty these were usually passed through an openwork pommel, and in the Qing through a hole in the grip itself; modern swords usually attach the tassel to the end of the pommel. Historically these were likely used as lanyards, allowing the wielder to retain the sword in combat. There are some sword forms which utilize the tassel as an integral part of their swordsmanship style (sometimes offensively), while other schools dispense with sword tassels entirely. The movement of the tassel may have served to distract opponents, and some schools further claim that metal wires or thin silk cords were once worked into the tassels for impairing vision and causing bleeding when swept across the face. The tassel's use now is primarily decorative.

The blade itself is customarily divided into three sections for leverage in different offensive and defensive techniques. The tip of the blade is the jiànfeng, meant for stabbing, slashing, and quick percussive cuts. The jiànfeng typically curves smoothly to a point, though in the Ming period sharply angled points were common. Some antiques have rounded points, though these are likely the result of wear. The middle section is the zhongren or middle edge, and is used for a variety of offensive and defensive actions: cleaving cuts, draw cuts, and deflections. The section of blade closest to the guard is called the jiàngen or root, and is mainly used for defensive actions; on some late period jian, the base of the blade was made into an unsharpened ricasso. These sections are not necessarily of the same length, with the jiànfeng being only three or four inches long.

Jian blades generally feature subtle profile taper (decreasing width), but often have considerable distal taper (decreasing thickness), with blade thickness near the tip being only half the thickness of the root's base. Jiàn may also feature differential sharpening, where the blade is made progressively sharper towards the tip, usually corresponding to the three sections of the blade. The cross-section of the blade is typically that of a flattened diamond with a visible central ridge, though some are lenticular (eye-shaped) instead; ancient bronze jian sometimes have a hexagonal cross-section.

Materials

An iron sword and two bronze swords from the Chinese Warring States Period

Jian were originally made from bronze, then steel as metal technology advanced. There are some, perhaps ceremonial, jian which are carved from a single solid piece of jade.

Traditional jian blades are usually of sanmei (three plate) construction, which involved sandwiching a core of hard steel between two plates of softer steel. The central plate protrudes slightly from its surrounding pieces, allowing for a sharp edge, while the softer spine protects the brittle core. Some blades had wumei or five plate construction, with two more soft plates being used at the central ridge.^[7] Bronze jian were often made in a somewhat similar manner: in this case an alloy with a high copper content would be used to make a resilient core and spine, while the edge would be made from a high tin-content alloy for sharpness and welded on to the rest of the blade.

The sword smiths of China are often credited with the forging technologies that traveled to Korea and Japan to allow sword smiths there to create such weapons as the katana. These technologies include folding, inserted alloys, and differential hardening of the edge.^[8]^[9] While the Japanese would be more influenced by the Chinese dāo (single-edged swords of various forms), the early Japanese swords known as ken are often based on jian. The Korean version of the jian is known as the geom or gum, and these swords often preserve features found in Ming-era jian, such as openwork pommels and sharply angled tips.

In martial art schools wooden swords are used for training, so most martial arts students' first experience with a jian in modern times is with one of those weapons. In some religious Taoist sects, those wooden practice swords have come to have an esoteric ritual purpose, claimed by some to metaphorically represent the discipline of an accomplished student.

Contemporary jian versions are often forged (shaped with heat and hammer) and assembled by mostly traditional methods for training of practitioners of Chinese martial arts around the world. These jian vary greatly in quality and historical accuracy.

Contemporary jian are also sometimes forgeries (artificially aged and misrepresented as original antiques), for sale to tourists and collectors who cannot distinguish them from true antiques.

Historical use

The first jian used in China were little more than bronze double-edged daggers primarily created for close fighting in closed packed environments such as small towns and cities where spears and polearms might prove inconvenient. By that time, jian swords were made from varying lengths to modern lengths by roughly 500 BC. Though there is significant variation in length, balance, and weight of the jian from different periods, within any given period the general purpose of the jian is to be a multipurpose cut and thrust weapon capable of stabbing, as well as making both precise cuts and slashes, as opposed to specializing in one form of use. Although the many forms and schools of swordsmanship with the jian vary as well, the general purpose and use is still not lost.

Wushu jian pair event at the 10th All China games

Historical jian wielders would engage in test cutting called shizhan, practicing their skills on targets known as caoren, or "grass men". Such targets were made from bamboo, rice straw, or saplings. This practice was similar to the Japanese art of tameshigiri, but was never formalized to the extent that the latter art was.^[10]

Today most Chinese martial arts such as Taijiquan and their martial artists still train extensively with jian swords and expertise in its techniques is said by many of them to be the highest physical expression of their kung fu. However, most jian today are flexible tai-chi or wushu jian used mainly for ceremonial purposes and not for actual combat.

Mythology and legacy

"The Eight Immortals Crossing the Sea" The figure on the lower left wears a jian on his back

There are several Taoist immortals who are associated with the jian. One example is Lü Dongbin. The bodhisattva Mañjuśrī (Ch: 文殊 Wénshū) is often depicted holding a jian, which is then referred to as the "sword of wisdom".

Jian frequently appear in wuxia fiction and films. The swords or the techniques used to wield them may be effectively or explicitly supernatural, and the quest for such swords or techniques may be a major plot element.

Qiang (Chinese Spear)

2009-10-15T21:27:00.000-07:00

Qiang (simplified Chinese: 枪; traditional Chinese: 槍; pinyin: qīang) is the Chinese term for spear. Due to its relative ease of manufacture, the spear in many variations was ubiquitous on the pre-modern Chinese battlefield. It is known as one of the four major weapons, along with the Gun (staff), Dao (sabre), and the Jian (sword), called in this group "The King of Weapons".

Common features of the Chinese spear are the leaf shaped blade and red horse-hair tassel lashed just below.

Qiang event at the 10^th All China Games

When the spear is moving quickly, the addition of the tassel aids in blurring the vision of the opponent so that it is more difficult for them to grab the shaft of spear behind the head or tip. The tassel also served another purpose, to stop the flow of blood from the blade getting to the wooden shaft (the blood would make it slippery, or sticky when dried). The length varied from around 7 feet (2 meters) long, commonly used by infantry, increasing up to the length of 13 feet (4 meters) favoured by cavalry. The spear is typically made of wax wood, a strong but flexible wood. It bends to absorb impact preventing breakage. The bending motion combined with the horse hair tassel makes the spear tip very hard to follow.

Although most Chinese spears are about 2 meters long and have one spear head, shorter versions of the spear used in pairs or double-headed spears used singly or in pairs exist as well.

Many Chinese martial arts feature spear training in their curriculum. The conditioning provided by spear technique is seen as invaluable and in many styles it is the first weapons training introduced to students. Moreover, some schools of empty handed fighting in China credit spear technique as their foundation, notably Xingyiquan and Bajiquan.

Kukri

2009-10-15T02:47:00.000-07:00

The kukri (Devanāgarī: खुकुरी) (also sometimes spelled khukri or khukuri) is a curved Nepalese knife used as both tool and weapon. It is also a part of the regimental weaponry and heraldry of The Royal Gurkha Rifles. It is known to many people as simply the "Gurkha Blade" or "Gurkha Knife". Also widely used in the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand state of India, where it is called Kaanta or Dafya (in Kumaoni).

Design

A kukri with karda and chakmak

The kukri is designed for chopping and stabbing purposes as a weapon of war, but it can still be used in other household or daily tasks, such as: building or digging a furrow, to cut meat and vegetables, to cut trees etc. It functions as a cross between a knife and an axe.^[1]

Although general shape remains the same, there are huge variations in terms of dimensions and blade thickness, depending on intended tasks and regional variations.

Depending on the purpose, its design and manufacture varies. Blades are usually 3 - 10 cm wide and 30 – 38 cm long, but size varies depending on its purpose. Blades are deflected at an angle of 20° or more, with a thick spine and a single sharp cutting edge; this causes the end section of the blade to strike square on, greatly increasing chopping effectiveness.

Handles are made of hardwood or water buffalo horns. Knife has a flared butt that allow better retention in draw cuts and chopping. Traditional design doesn't have any front guard.

Many kukri display metal bolster (generally brass) covering the handle/blade junction.

A kukri can have one or more fullers, including the "aunlo bal" (finger of strength/force/energy), a relatively deep and narrow fuller visible in the modern example above, as well as one or more "chirra", which may refer either to shallow fullers in the belly of the blade or a hollow grind of the edge [3]. This groove is said to symbolize the spear of the god Shiva. There are other stories about the meaning of these decorations. Very often the knifesmith will put his own maker's mark near the handle as well.

Kukris usually have a notch or a pair of adjacent notches (the "kaura" or "cho") at the base of the blade. Various reasons are given for this, both practical and ceremonial: that it makes blood and sap drop off the blade rather than running onto the handle; that it delineates the end of the blade whilst sharpening; that it is a symbol representing the Hindu goddess Kali.

Traditional designs use a "rat tail" tang going through the handle although full tang kukris have been introduced notably to the request of British army.

The Knife typically comes with a leather sheath. It is common to add to the sheath one or two small knives and/or a sharpening steel.

Manufacture

Modern Kukri blades are often forged from leaf springs collected from recycled truck suspensions. The tang of the blade usually extends all the way through to the end of the handle; the small portion of the tang that projects through the end of the handle is hammered flat to secure the blade. A kukri blade has a hard, tempered edge and a softer spine. This enables it to maintain a sharp edge, yet tolerate impacts. They are also balanced so that they will rest in a vertical position if supported on a fulcrum, e.g. a finger.

Traditional kukris usually have handles made from hardwood or water buffalo horn. These handles are often fastened with a kind of tree sap called laha (also known as "Himalayan epoxy"). With a wood or horn handle, the tang may be heated and burned into the handle to ensure a tight fit, since only the section of handle which touches the blade is burned away. In more modern kukri, handles of cast aluminum or brass are press-fitted to the tang - as the hot metal cools it shrinks and hardens, locking onto the blade. Some kukris (such as the ones made by contractors for the modern Indian Army) have a very wide tang with handle slabs fastened on by two or more rivets, commonly called a full tang (chiruwa) configuration.

Traditional profiling of the blade edge is performed by a two-man team; one man spins a grind wheel forwards and backwards by means of a rope wound several times around an axle, while the sharpener applies the blade. The wheel is made by hand from fine river sand bound by laha, the same adhesive used to the affix the handle to the blade. Routine sharpening is traditionally accomplished by passing a chakmak (smaller, harder, unsharpened blade) over the edge in a manner similar to that used by Western chefs to steel their knives.

Kukri sheaths are usually made of wood with a goatskin covering. The leatherwork is usually done by a sarki. Traditionally, the scabbard also holds two smaller tools called the karda and the chakmak. The karda is a small accessory blade used for many tasks. The chakmak is unsharpened and is used to burnish the blade. It can also be used to start a fire with flint. Attached to older style scabbards there is sometimes a pouch for carrying flint or dry tinder.

Parts of a Kukri

Kukri Blade

Keeper (Hira Jornu): Spade/Diamond shaped metal/brass plate used to seal the butt cap.
Butt Cap (Chapri): Thick metal/brass plate used to secure the handle to the tang.
Tang (Paro): Rear piece of the blade that goes through the handle
Bolster (Kanjo): Thick metal/brass round shaped plate between blade and handle made to support and reinforce the fixture.
Spine (Beet): Thickest blunt edge of the blade.
Fuller/Groove (Khol): Straight groove or deep line that runs along part of the upper spine.
Peak (Juro): Highest point of the blade.
Main body (Ang): Main surface or panel of the blade.
Fuller (Chirra): Curvature/Hump in the blade made to absorb impact and to reduce unnecessary weight.
Tip (Toppa): Starting point of the blade.
Edge (Dhaar): Sharp edge of the blade.
Belly (Bhundi): Widest part/area of the blade.
Bevel (Patti): Slope from the main body until the sharp edge.
Cho/Notch (Kaudi): A distinctive cut (numeric 3 like shape) in the edge functioned as a blood dropper and others.
Ricasso (Ghari): Blunt area between notch and bolster.
Rings (Harhari): Round circles in the handle.
Rivet (Khil): Steel or metal bolt to fasten or secure tang to the handle.
Tang Tail (Puchchar): Last point of the kukri blade.

Kukri Scabbard

Frog (Faras): Belt holder especially made of thick leather (2mm to 4mm) encircling the scabbard close towards the throat.
Upper Edge (Mathillo Bhaag): Spine of the scabbard where holding should be done when handling a kukri.
Lace (Tuna): A leather cord used to sew or attach two ends of the frog. Especially used in army types (not available in this pic).
Main Body (Sharir): The main body or surface of the scabbard. Generally made in semi oval shape.
Chape (Khothi): Pointed metallic tip of the scabbard. Used to protect the naked tip of a scabbard.
Loop (Golie): Round leather room/space where a belt goes through attached/fixed to the keeper with steel rivets.
Throat (Mauri): Entrance towards the interior of the scabbard for the blade.
Strap/Ridge (Bhunti): Thick raw leather encircling the scabbard made to create a hump to secure the frog from moving or wobbling (not available in this pic).
Lower Edge (Tallo Bhag): Belly/curvature of the scabbard.

Types of Kukri

Kukris can be broadly classified into two types: 'siropate' are used for warfare, while 'budhuni' are used for woodwork. Siropate have sleeker and thinner blades, while the budhuni have thicker wider blades shaped more like fish.

History

A Gurkha officer of the Gurkha Contingent, Singapore Police Force patrols around Raffles City during the 117th IOC Session. He wears the distinctively tilted Hat Terrai Gurkha, and the kukri can be seen affixed to the back of his belt.

It is a matter of debate where the design came into Nepal from another or who promoted it first. It may be indigenous to the Indian region, but ancient Egypt, the Iberians, and the Greeks used similar designs.

One weapon of Iberian origin, the Falcata, shows some similarity with the kukri, and the Greeks used forms called the Machaira and kopis. Alexander the Great's men used weapons of this type and may have spread it into India when Alexander moved into the Punjab.

The Greek kings in Afghanistan and India in later centuries who had relation with Mediterranean culture (after the time of Julius Caesar and Roman merchants, who had a huge commercial presence in India) seem to have used tools similar to kukri, and possibly were promoters of it.

It is not documented if the Aryans had similar tool at that time.

Eurasian steppe people, the Turks used a type of forward-curving Turkish sword yataghan (mid-16th to late 19th centuries) which first appeared in centuries after the Battle of Manzikert and looked similar to kukri.

Gurkha troops were issued the kukri and regularly trained in its use. The weapon was used in combat in both World War I and World War II, where it earned a deadly reputation among enemy forces. During the Second World War, the kukri was purchased and used by other British, Commonwealth, and U.S. troops training in India, including the Chindits and Merrill's Marauders.

Kukri makers

Traditionally Kami (caste) and Biswakarma (caste) are the masters of inherited kukri making art.

Usage

Despite the physical resemblance to a boomerang, the kukri is not designed to be thrown. The blade's distinctive forward drop is intended to act as a weight on the end of the blade and make the kukri fall on the enemy faster and with more power. As for attacking, the kukri is most effective as a chopping, slashing weapon - though stabbing attacks are also used.^[2]

Despite usage in the military, the kukri is most commonly used as a woodcutting and general purpose tool, and is a very common agricultural and household implement in Nepal. A kukri designed for general purpose is commonly 16 to 18 inches (around 40-45 cm) in overall length and weighs one to two pounds (around 450-900 grams). Bigger examples are impractical for everyday use and are rarely found except in collections or as ceremonial instruments. Smaller ones are of more limited utility, but very easy to carry.

A kukri

Although a popular urban legend states that a Gurkha "never sheathes his blade without first drawing blood", the kukri is most commonly employed as a multi-use utility tool, rather like a machete. It can be used for building, clearing, chopping firewood, digging, cutting meat and vegetables, skinning and also for opening tins.^[3]

The kukri also has a religious significance in Hindu religion and is blessed during the Dasain sacrificial festival.

Singijeon

2009-10-15T02:45:00.000-07:00

Singijeon is a multi-launch rocket made by Korean general Choe Mu-seon in 1377, during the Goryeo Dynasty under King U.[1] These were launched by multiple means, such as the hwacha and other large-barreled guns. The Juhwa were the first singijeon, and the result of efforts to acquire the technology to manufacture gunpowder. In order to gain ascendancy in the sea against the Japanese pirates, the Koreans had tried to acquire rockets and gunpowder and their production methods from China.[2] But the Chinese regarded the technology of gunpowder manufacture as a state secret and restricted access to it and its nitrous raw materials (which could only be found in China) trade.[3] Therefore, Koreans sought to acquire the manufacturing secrets of gunpowder for themselves, and, in 1374 (~1376), Choe successfully extracted potassium nitrate from the soil[4] and rocks from Japanese trade routes, and developed Korea's first gunpowder. This eventually led to the creation of the juhwa.

Singijeon were divided among three major types: large, medium, and small. The 52cm long missile was launched individually on a handheld gun, and the launch was initiated by a fuse in the tube. Even after launch, the fuse would remain in the tube, consuming the black powder until it hit the "warhead" and caused detonation.[5] The fuse length was determined by the amount of gunpowder in the paper tube, and was adjusted depending on the distance that the missile had to cover so that it would explode on the target. Its range was around 1 to 2 kilometers.[6] The medium singijeon was of the same construction and function as the large singijeon, but, due to its smaller size of 13cm,[5] its range was limited to 150 meters.[7] However, its explosive warhead was still powerful enough to make a 30cm-deep crater in a patch of sand.[8] The small singijeon was simply an arrow with a gunpowder pouch attached to it, and had no explosive capabilities. It was launched in multiples of 100 by a hwacha, and had a range of 100 meters. All gunpowder weapons including the singijeon used black powder.

Singijeon saw most of its early use in the Northern borders of Joseon, in the campaign to expand its northern borders by driving out the "Orangkae" ("Barbarians," especially referring the Jurchen people). Later, its uses expanded to coastal defence against Japanese pirates and was much used throughout the conflicts during the Joseon Dynasty. During the Imjin War, General Gwon Yul attributed his perilously outnumbered yet successful defence against the Japanese forces at the Haengju mountain fortress to the Singijeon.[8]

Ironically, the location of the schematics of the singijeon were not known until much recently. Korean historians had found the schematics stuck as an appendix in the book "Gukjo Orye Seorye" (국조오례서례, 國朝五禮序例) but did not realize what it was until Dr. Chae Yeon-suk affirmed them as the hidden schematics of the singijeon[citation needed]. The schematics detail the lengths of wooden materials using units down to 0.3mm. The schematics are one of the best representations of the acute scientific understanding of the Joseon Dynasty.

Gungdo (Korean Bow)

2009-10-15T02:25:00.000-07:00

The Korean Bow ('Hwal') is a waterbuffalo horn-based composite reflex bow, standardized about 1900 CE from the variety of such weapons in earlier use. It is normally used with a thumb draw.

Gungsul, also written goongsul, literally means "the Craft of the bow." It is also called Korean traditional archery.

Historical use and decline

The bow had been the most important weapon in Korean wars with Chinese dynasties and nomadic peoples, recorded from the 1st century BCE.^[1] Legend says the first king and founder of the Goguryeo, Go Jumong, was a master of archery, able to catch 5 flies with one arrow. Park Hyeokgeose, the first king of the Silla, was also said to be a skilled archer. Rumours of archers in Goguryeo and Silla presumably reached China; the ancient Chinese gave the people of the north east, Siberia, Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula, the name of Dongyi (東夷), the latter character (夷) being a combinatioin of the two characters for "large" (大) and "bow" (弓)^[2].

Until the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598), archery was the main long-range weapon system. In that war, the tactical superiority of the matchlock musket became apparent, despite its slow rate of fire and susceptibility to wet weather.^[3] Under King Hyojong's military reforms, an attempt was made to revive horse archery as a significant element of the military. This came to nothing after his sudden death in 1659, and there are no definite accounts of later military use of archery. Nevertheless, until the military reforms of 1894, archery was an essential part of the military examination. It was also practiced for pleasure and for health, and many young males - including the king - would spend their free time practicing it.

Revival as leisure activity

Standard gungdo target

In 1899, a visiting German prince expressed his astonishment to Emperor Gojong at a traditional archery demonstration. The emperor, impressed, decreed "let people enjoy archery to develop their physical strength" and established an archery club building. In the subsequent revival of Korean archery, the nature of the bow and the arrow was standardized, as was the range of the targets. Korean traditional archery now uses one specific type of composite bow, bamboo arrows, and a standard target at a standard distance of 120 bo (about 145 meters).

Construction and competition

The traditional Korean bow is a highly reflexed version of the classic Eurasian composite bow. The core is bamboo, which is sinew backed, with oak at the handle. On the belly is waterbuffalo horn. The siyahs, the stiffened outer ends of the limbs, are made of either mulberry or black locust spliced (v-splice) onto the bamboo. The glue is made from fish air-bladder. Over the sinew backing is a special birch bark that is imported from Northeast China. It is soaked in sea water (possibly for one year). It is applied to the back using diluted rubber cement (using benzene as the solvent). No sights or other modern attachments are used.

The draw weights vary, but most are above twenty kilograms. The cost for this type of bow is in the US$800 range. For a similar modern version made of laminated fiberglass, the cost is US$200-300. For most competitions, either bow may be used, with carbon-fiber arrows, but for national competitions, only the composite bow and bamboo arrows may be used. Korean archers have also been very successful in Olympic and other competitions with more modern types of bow.^[4]

The sukgung, a kind of crossbow, is a small but very powerful bow. A sukgung can shoot up to 400 meters.

Nzappa zap

2009-10-14T23:44:00.001-07:00

The Nzappa zap (also referred to as zappozap, kasuyu) is a traditional African weapon similar to an axe or hatchet. It has an ornate wrought-iron blade connected to a club-like wooden handle, often clad in copper, bronze or brass. In practice, it is used much like the American tomahawk, both thrown for short distances and as a melee weapon in hand-to-hand combat. It differs from the usual axe style, in that the blade mounts to looping prongs that affix to the shaft.

Lochaber Axe

2009-10-14T23:39:00.000-07:00

The Lochaber axe was a Scottish war axe that came into use around 1300. The name of the weapon derives from Lochaber, an area in the western Scottish Highlands, as the weapon was employed principally by the Scottish highlanders, who (generally without any cavalry of their own) required armament against cavalry.

The axe itself is similar to tools used with crops, such as the scythe, which is designed for reaping. The hook on the back bears a passing resemblance to a shepherd's crook, although within agriculture a smaller hook such as this may have been used in order to lift and carry tied bundles of a harvested crop or pull down tree branches. It is possible, then, that earlier Lochaber axes, like the billhook, served a dual purpose as both weapons and farming tools.

Specifics of the weapon

The Lochaber axe took many incarnations, although all of them had a few elements in common. It was a heavy weapon, used by infantry for a defense against cavalry and as a pike against infantry. Like most other polearms of the time, it consisted of two parts: shaft and blade. The shaft was usually some five or six feet (1.5 or 1.8 m) long, and mounted with a blade of about 18 inches (45 cm) in length which usually resembled a bardiche or voulge in design. The blade might be attached in two places and often had a sharp point coming off the top. In addition a hook (or cleek) was attached to the back of the blade. A butt spike was included as a counterweight to the heavy axe head. Langlets were incorporated down each side of the shaft to prevent the head from being cut off.

Another idea is that the Lochaber is just the Scottish name for the weapon known as a bardiche; these also occasionally had a backspike or hook too. [1]

Use

In hand-to-hand combat, the axe, in common with other polearms such as the halberd, has a spike on the end, to be used on close combat in a thrusting motion. The axe on the side, coupled with the long pole, delivered a powerful blow to infantry or dismounted cavalry.

Finally, the hook on the back allowed infantry to hook the cavalry off their horses. To accomplish this, as the cavalry charged, the highlanders would suddenly change formation from a large body, into smaller bodies of men with clear channels between them. The horses would naturally go into these channels, and the foot soldiers would hook the cavalry off their horses, then use their axes on them with devastating effect. The hook supposedly could also be used for scaling walls.

In history

In about 1570, during the Battle of Bun Garbhain between Clan Cameron and Clan Mackintosh, the Lochaber axe was used by the Camerons. Donald 'Black Taylor of the Axe', son of the 14th chief of Clan Cameron, became notable for his fighting prowess with the axe and became a hero for felling the chief of Clan Mackintosh with it.

Before the populist uprising known as the Jacobite Rising of 1745 or, simply, "the '45," Lochaber axes were relegated to the Scottish constabulary, and were somewhat viewed as the police baton of the day. In 1745, Prince Charles Stewart raised an army of Scots to oust the Hanoverian King George from the Throne of England and place his father, James VI of Scotland, on the throne. Many of the Prince's army equipped themselves with Lochaber axes, until such a time they could discard the axes for captured muskets and bayonets or arms supplied by the French.

By around 1767, the Lochaber axe was used mainly as a ceremonial weapon by the town guard of Edinburgh, Scotland

Hurlbat

2009-10-14T23:36:00.000-07:00

A hurlbat or whirlbat is a ranged weapon consisting of an entirely metal throwing axe sharpened on every auxiliary end to a point or blade, practically guaranteeing some form of damage against its target. They were known to be popular in Europe from the mid-1400s to the mid-1600s. They were usually about six-mm-thick steel, which made them impressively light and easy to throw.

Ji (halberd)

2009-10-14T23:28:00.000-07:00

The ji (Chinese: 戟; pinyin: jǐ), the Chinese halberd, was used as a military weapon in one form or another from at least as early as the Shang dynasty until the end of the Qing dynasty. They are still used for training purposes by many Chinese martial arts. The ji resembles a Chinese spear for the most part, with a small crescent blade attached to the head and a red horsehair tassel where the head is fixed to the shaft. It was a relatively common infantry weapon, especially in its common Bronze Age variant known as the dagger-axe, although it was used by cavalry and charioteers as well. There were several types of ji, e.g. with a rectangular, serrated blade instead of the crescent-formed one, or spear tips with two curved blades attached (see the center halberd in illustration).

They have two or three sharp points of attack, the side blade or blades and the tip, plus often a rear counter weight that could be used to strike the opponent. The way the side blades are fixed to the main spear pole differs, but usually there are empty spaces between the pole and the side blade. The wielder could strike with the shaft, with the option of then pulling the halberd back to hook with a side blade; or slap his opponent with the flat side of the halberd blade to knock him off his horse.

Pollaxe (Polearm)

2009-10-14T23:19:00.000-07:00

The poleaxe is a type of European polearm which was widely used by medieval infantry. It is also known by the names pole-axe, pole axe, polax, and Hache (French meaning axe).

Etymology

Sometimes weapons such as the halberd, the bardiche or the Danish axe are mistakenly called pole axes as they are indeed axes mounted on poles, but many etymological authorities consider the poll- prefix historically unrelated to "pole", instead meaning "head."^[1]

There are, however, etymologists, such as Eric Partridge who do believe that the word is derived from "pole".^[2]

Types of poleaxe

Godfrey of Bouillon holds a short Poleaxe

The poleaxe design arose from the need to breach the plate armor of men at arms during the 14th and 15th centuries. Generally, the form consisted of a wooden haft some 4–6.5 feet (1.2–2.0 m) long, mounted with a steel head. It seems most schools of combat suggested a haft length comparable to the height of the wielder, but in some cases hafts appear to have been created up to 8 feet (2.4 m) in length.

The design of the head varied greatly with a variety of interchangeable parts and rivets. Generally, the head bore an axe or hammer upon the damaging 'face', with a spike, hammer, or fluke on the reverse. In addition, there was a projection from the top (often square in cross section) built somewhat like a dagger. The head was attached to the squared-off wooden pole by long flat strips of metal, which were riveted in place on either two or four of its sides, called langets. Also, a round hilt-like disc called a rondelle was placed just below the head. They also appear to have borne one or two rings along the poles length as places to prevent hands from slipping. Also of note is that the 'butt end' of the staff, which did not contain the weapon's 'head', bore a spike.

On quick glance, the poleaxe is often confused with the similar looking halberd. However, the 'axe blade' on a poleaxe seems to have been consistently smaller than that of a halberd. Furthermore, many halberds had their heads forged as a single piece, while the poleaxe was always modular in design.

Popular usage

The poleaxe in that spelling, refers to an animal culling device of similar appearance. It was swung so the spike struck the animal, normally cattle, in the forehead. Hence also the phrase 'to be poleaxed' referring to being stunned. This term does not seem to appear before the 19th century.

Halberd

2009-10-14T23:11:00.000-07:00

Halberd (also called halbert or Swiss voulge) is a two-handed pole weapon that came to prominent use during the 14th and 15th centuries. Possibly the word halberd comes from the German words Halm (staff), and Barte (axe). The halberd consists of an axe blade topped with a spike mounted on a long shaft. It always has a hook or thorn on the back side of the axe blade for grappling mounted combatants.^[1] It is very similar to certain forms of the voulge in design and usage. The halberd was 1.5 to 1.8 meters (5 to 6 feet) long.^[2]

The halberd was cheap to produce and very versatile in battle. As the halberd was eventually refined, its point was more fully developed to allow it to better deal with spears and pikes (also able to push back approaching horsemen), as was the hook opposite the axe head, which could be used to pull horsemen to the ground.^[3]

Additionally, halberds were reinforced with metal rims over the shaft, thus making effective weapons for blocking other weapons like swords. This capability increased its effectiveness in battle, and expert halberdiers were as deadly as any other weapon masters. It is said that a halberd in the hands of a Swiss peasant was the weapon that killed the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, decisively ending the Burgundian Wars, literally in a single stroke.

The halberd was the primary weapon of the early Swiss armies in the 14th and early 15th centuries.^[3] Later on, the Swiss added the pike to better repel knightly attacks and roll over enemy infantry formations, with the halberd, hand-and-a-half sword, or the dagger known as the Schweizerdolch being used for closer combat. The German Landsknechte, who imitated Swiss warfare methods, also used the halberd, supplemented by the pike, but their side arm of choice was the short sword known as the Katzbalger.

As long as pikemen fought other pikemen, the halberd remained a useful supplemental weapon for "push of pike," but when their position became more defensive, to protect the slow-loading arquebusiers and matchlock musketeers from sudden attacks by cavalry, the percentage of halberdiers in the pike units steadily decreased, until the halberd all but disappeared from these formations as a rank-and-file weapon by the middle of the sixteenth century.^[4]

The halberd has been used as a court bodyguard weapon for centuries, and is still the ceremonial weapon of the Swiss Guard in the Vatican.^[5] The halberd was one of the polearms sometimes carried by lower-ranking officers in European infantry units in the 16th through 18th centuries.

Different types of halberds

Hippe
Scorpion
Ji (戟)

Weapons often mistaken for halberds

Bill
Bisento
Dagger-axe
Guan Dao
Lochaber axe (Jeddart axe)
Naginata
Poleaxe
Spears

Gallery

Different sorts of halberds and halberd-like pole weapons in Switzerland	Citizens of Zurich on 1 May 1351 are read the Federal Charter as they swear allegiance to representatives of Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden and Lucerne. The person on the right side is a scribe reading the text. One of the representatives carries a typical Swiss Halberd of the period depicted (as opposed to the time the image was made, 1515).	Saint Wiborada is often (anachronistically) depicted with a halberd, indicative of the means of her martyrdom	Halberds:A) 1450 ; B) 1384 and C) 1500.
Halberd, 1384.

Viking Axe or Danish Axe

2009-10-14T23:07:00.000-07:00

The Viking axe is an early type of polearm, primarily used during the transition between the European "Viking Age" and early Middle Ages. Other names for the weapon include Dane-axe, English long axe, Danish axe, and hafted axe.

Construction

Most axes, both in period illustrations and extant artifact, that fall under the description of Danish Axe, possess Type L or Type M heads according to the Petersen axe typology^[1]. Both types consist of a wide, thin blade, with pronounced "horns" at both the toe and heel of the bit. Cutting surface varies, but is generally between 20 cm and 30 cm (8 and 12 inches). Type L blades tend to be smaller, with the toe of the bit swept forward for superior shearing capability. Later Type M blades are typically larger overall, with a more symmetrical toe and heel.

The blade itself was reasonably light and forged very thin, making it superb for cutting. The thickness of the body above the edge is as thin as 2mm. Many of these axes were constructed with a reinforced bit, typically of a higher carbon steel to facilitate a harder, sharper edge. Average weight of an axe this size is between 1 kg and 2 kg (2 and 4 pounds). Proportionally, the long axe has more in common with a modern meat cleaver than a wood axe. This complex construction results in a lively and quick weapon with devastating cutting ability.

Based on period depictions, the haft of a Longaxe for combat was usually between approx. 0.9 m and 1.2 m (3 and 4 feet) long, although Dane axes used as status symbols might be as long as 1.5 to 1.7 m (5 to 5 1/2 ft). Such axes might also feature inlaid silver and frequently may not have the flared steel edge of a weapon designed for war. Some surviving examples also feature a brass haft cap, often richly decorated, which presumably served to keep the head of the weapon secure on the haft, as well as protecting the end of the haft from the rigors of battle. Ash and oak are the most likely materials for the haft, as they have always been the primary materials used for polearms in Europe.

History

The Danish axe on the Bayeux tapestry.

In the course of the 10-11th. Centuries, the Danish Axe gained popularity in areas outside Scandinavia where Viking influence was strong, such as England, Ireland and Normandy. Historical accounts depict the Danish Axe as the weapon of the warrior elite in this period, such as the Huscarls of Anglo-Saxon England.^{[citation needed]} In the Bayeux tapestry, a visual record of the ascent of William the Conqueror to the throne of England, the axe is almost exclusively wielded by well armored huscarls. These huscarls formed the core bodyguard of King Harold at the Battle of Hastings. The Bayeux Tapestry also depicts a huscarl cleaving a Norman knight's horse's head with one blow[3]. The Dane-Axe is also known to have been used by the Varangian Guard, also known as pelekyphoros phroura (πελεκυφόρος φρουρά), the "axe-bearing guard". One surviving ivory plaque from the 10th century Constantinople depicts a Varangian holding an axe that is at least as tall as its wielder.^{[citation needed]}

Although the name retains its Scandinavian heritage, the Danish axe became widely used throughout Europe from 12th.-13th century, as axes gained acceptance as a knightly weapon, albeit not achieving the status of the sword^[2]. They also began to be used widely as an infantry polearm, with the haft lengthening to about 6 ft. (2m.)^[3]. The 13th. and 14th. century also see form changes, with the blade also lengthening, the rear horn extending to touch or attach to the haft. The lengthened weapon, especially if combined with the lengthened blade, was called a sparth in England. Some believe this weapon is the ancestor of the halberd^[4].

While the Danish axe continues in use in the 14th. century, axes with an armour piercing back-spike and spear-like spike on the fore-end of the haft become more common, eventually evolving into the Pollaxe in the 15th. century.^[5] The simple Danish axe continues to be used in the West of Scotland and in Ireland into the 16th. century^[6]. In Ireland, it is particularly associated with Galloglas mercenaries^[7].

Famous historical figures associated with the axe

After the Battle of Stiklestad, the axe also became the symbol of St. Olaf and can still be seen on the Coat of Arms of Norway. However, this is because the axe is the implement of his martyrdom, rather than signifying use.^{[citation needed]}

King Stephen of England famously used a Danish axe at the Battle of Lincoln 1141 after his sword broke.^[8]

Richard the Lionheart was often recorded wielding a large war axe in Victorian times, which may have been a Danish axe, though references are sometimes wildly exaggerated as befitted a national hero: "Long and long after he was quiet in his grave, his terrible battle-axe, with twenty English pounds of English steel in its mighty head..." - A Child's History of England by Charles Dickens^[9]. Geoffrey de Lusignan is another famous crusader associated with the axe^[10]

In the 14th. century, the use of axes is increasingly noted by Froissart in his Chronicle^[11], with King Jean II using one at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 and Sir James Douglas at the Battle of Otterburn in 1388. Bretons were apparently noted axe users, with Bertrand du Guesclin and Olivier de Clisson both wielding axes in battle ^[12] In these cases, we cannot tell whether the weapon was a Danish axe, or the proto-pollaxe.

Francisca

2009-10-14T22:48:00.000-07:00

The francisca (or francesca) is a throwing axe used as a weapon during the Early Middle Ages by the Franks, among whom it was a characteristic national weapon at the time of the Merovingians from about 500 to 750 AD and is known to have been used during the reign of Charlemagne (768 - 814).^[1] Although generally associated with the Franks, it was also used by other Germanic peoples of the period including the Anglo-Saxons, and several examples have been found in England.

Etymology

The term francisca first appeared in the book Ethymologiarum sive originum, libri XVIII by Isidore of Seville (c. 560 - 636) as a name used among the Spanish to refer to these weapons "because of their use by the Franks".

The historian Gregory of Tours (c. 538 - 594) in his History of the Franks uses two Latin terms for the Frankish axe - securis and bipennis.

The régime of Vichy France used the image of a stylised double-headed francisque as part of its iconography (compare fasces).

Description

The francisca is characterized by its distinctly arch-shaped head, widening toward the cutting edge and terminating in a prominent point at both the upper and lower corners. The top of the head is usually either S-shaped or convex with the lower portion curving inward and forming an elbow with the short wooden haft.^[1]^[2] Sometimes the head is more upswept forming a wider angle with the haft. Most franciscas have a round or teardrop-shaped eye designed to fit the tapered haft, similar to Viking axes. Based on the measurements of modern replicas the francisca had a haft length of around 40-45 cm (16-18 in) and a 10 cm (4 in) cutting edge [1] [2] with an average weight of around 600 g (21 oz, 1.3 lb).^[1] Based on surviving heads of franciscas recovered at Burgh Castle and Morning Thorpe in county Norfolk, England ^[2] the length of the head itself measured 14-15 cm (5-6 in) from the edge to the back of the socket.

Use

The Roman historian Procopius (c. 500 - 565) described the Franks and their use of throwing axes:

"...each man carried a sword and shield and an axe. Now the iron head of this weapon was thick and exceedingly sharp on both sides while the wooden handle was very short. And they are accustomed always to throw these axes at one signal in the first charge and thus shatter the shields of the enemy and kill the men." ^[2]

Procopius makes it clear that the Franks threw their axes immediately before hand to hand combat with the purpose of breaking shields and disrupting the enemy line while possibly wounding or killing an enemy warrior. The weight of the head and length of the haft would allow the axe to be thrown with considerable momentum to an effective range of about 12 m (40 ft). Even if the edge of the blade were not to strike the target the weight of the iron head could cause injury. The Franks were not the first to utilize the Francisca. The Francisca was also used as an intimidator in that upon throwing of the Francisca, the enemy might turn and run in the fear that another volley was coming.^[2]

Another feature of the francisca was the tendency to bounce unpredictably upon hitting the ground [3] due to its weight, unique shape, lack of balance and slight curvature of the haft, making it difficult for defenders to block. It could rebound up at the legs of opponents or against shields and through the ranks. The Franks capitalized on this by throwing the franciscas in a volley in order to confuse, intimidate and disorganize the enemy lines either before or during a charge to initiate close combat.

Today, the francisca remains in popular use as a throwing axe in competitions or as a weapon for reenactors of medieval warfare

Tabar Zin

2009-10-14T22:38:00.000-07:00

The Tabar Zin or tabar-i-zin (sometimes translated "saddle-hatchet") is the traditional battle axe of Persia and Iran. It bears one or two crescent-shaped blades. The long form of the tabar was about seven feet long, while a shorter version was about three feet long. What made the Persian axe unique is the very thin handle, which is very light and always metallic.

The tabar is sometimes carried as a symbolic weapon by wandering dervishes (Muslim ascetic worshippers).

Persian weaponry is at times identical to East Indian weaponry because these two cultures have intermingled many times over the century.

"Tabar" means axe, and "zin" has to do with hanging from a horse. Some sources say that zin comes from "zar", the ancient word for war.

Sagaris

2009-10-14T22:33:00.000-07:00

Sagaris was the Greek name for a weapon used by Scythian tribes, by the Persians, Mossynoeci, and others, and according to Aristarchus of Samothrace, by the Amazons. The weapon was probably a kind of battle-axe, described as single-edged by some authors, and as double-edged by others. Possibly from this arose an attribution of the invention of the battle-axe to the Amazons by medieval and Renaissance authors (e.g. Johannes Aventinus), and a (modern) association of the Amazons with the Labrys.

Labrys

2009-10-14T22:27:00.000-07:00

Labrys (λάβρυς lábrus) is the term for a symmetrical doubleheaded axe, known to the Classical Greeks as pelekus (πέλεκυς) or sagaris, and to the Romans as a bipennis.^[1]

The double-bitted axe remains a forestry tool to this day,^[2] and the labrys certainly functioned as a tool, hewing wood, and wielded in war^[3] before it was invested with symbolic function.^[4] Labrys symbolism is found in Minoan, Thracian, and Greek religion, mythology, and art, dating from the Middle Bronze Age onwards, and surviving in the Byzantine Empire. The labrys also appears in African religious symbolism and mythology (see Shango).

The labrys was formerly a symbol of Greek fascism. Today it is sometimes used as a symbol of Hellenic Neopaganism. As an LGBT symbol it represents lesbianism and female or matriarchal power.

Etymology

In English the first appearance of "labrys", introduced by Sir Arthur Evans, is reported in OED from Journal of Hellenic Studies XXI. 108 (1901): "It seems natural to interpret names of Carian sanctuaries like Labranda in the most literal sense as the place of the sacred labrys, which was the Lydian (or Carian) name for the Greek πέλεκυς, or double-edged axe." And, p. 109, "On Carian coins indeed of quite late date the labrys, set up on its long pillar-like handle, with two dependent fillets, has much the appearance of a cult image."^[5]

The non-Greek word labrys first appears in Plutarch as the Lydian word for axe:

Herakles, having slain Hippolyte and taken her axe away from her with the rest of her arms, gave it to Omphale. The kings of Lydia who succeeded her carried this as one of their sacred insignia of office, and passed it down from father to son until Candaules. Candaules, however, disdained it and gave it to one of his companions to carry. When Gyges rebelled and was making war upon Candaules, Arselis came with a force from Mylasa to the assistance of Gyges, slew Candaules and his companion, and took the axe to Caria with the other spoils of war. And having set up a statue of Zeus, he put the axe in his hand and called the god, "Labrandeus," labrys being the Lydian word for 'axe'^[6]

Archeology suggests that the veneration of Zeus Labraundeos at Labraunda was far older than Plutarch imagined. As with its apparent cognate, "labyrinth", the word entered the Greek language as a loanword, so that without Plutarch's specific reference its etymology, and even its original language, would not be positively known. The loanword labyrinth was used in Greek, but the designation "The house of the Double Axe" for the palace at Knossos is an imaginative innovation of Sir Arthur Evans.

Bronze axe from the Mesara tombs.

Minoan civilization

The term, and the symbol, is most closely associated in historical records with the Minoan civilization, which reached its peak in the 2nd millennium BC, and specifically with the worship of a Goddess.^[8] Some Minoan labrys have been found which are taller than a human and which might have been used during sacrifices. The sacrifices would likely have been of bulls. The labrys symbol has been found widely in the Bronze Age archaeological recovery at the Palace of Knossos on Crete.^[9] According to archaeological finds on Crete this double-axe was used specifically by Minoan priestesses for ceremonial uses. Of all the Minoan religious symbols, the axe was the holiest. To find such an axe in the hands of a Minoan woman would suggest strongly that she held a powerful position within the Minoan culture.

In the Near East and other parts of the region, eventually axes of this sort are often wielded by male divinities and appear to become symbols of the thunderbolt, but in Crete, unlike the Near East, this axe is never held by a male divinity, only by female divinities and her priestesses.^[10] .

The bull is a symbol of Zeus and indeed the labrys is associated with an archaic symbol of the thunder deity whom Zeus and others become as storm gods wielding their thunder weapons and are found in familiar motifs of Indo-European mythology. Examples are the Nordic god Thor, who hurls his mjollnir to cast thunder and lightning upon the earth, or Indra, who uses his favourite weapon the vajra. Similarly, Zeus throws his Keravnos to bring storm. The labrys, or pelekys, is the double axe Zeus uses to invoke storm.

"Many points go to prove that the double-axe is a representation of the lightning (...). The worship of it was kept up in the Greek island of Tenedos and in several cities in the south-west of former Hellenic Asia Minor, and it appears in later historical times in the cult of the thundergod of Asia Minor (Zeus Labrayndeus). An impression from a seal-stone shows the double-axe placed together with a zigzag line, which represents the flash of lightning" states Chr. Blinkenberg^[11] Control over a frightening natural phenomenon such as lightning always has been a chief reason for propitiation of deities.

In feminist interpretations (particularly by Marija Gimbutas) however, it is also interpreted as a symbol of the Mother Goddess and compared to the shape of a butterfly rather than an axe.^[12] Robert Graves interprets it as the symbol of the moon of the great goddesses, with the two curved edges indicating the waxing and waning phases on either side of a full moon.

Ancient Greece

The word labyrinthos (Mycenaean daburinthos^[13]) is probably connected with the word labrys. In the context of the Classical Greek myth of Theseus, the labyrinth of Greek mythology is frequently associated with the Minoan palace of Knossos and has a long tradition of use that extends before any written records explain the traditions.

On Greek vase paintings, a labrys sometimes appears in scenes of animal sacrifice, particularly as a weapon for the slaying of bulls.

On the "Perseus Vase" in Berlin (F1704; ca 570–560 BC), Hephaestus ritually flees his act of slicing open the head of Zeus to free Athena whose pregnant mother Zeus swallowed to prevent her offspring from dethroning him. Over the shoulder of Hephaestus is the instrument he has used, the double-headed axe. The more usual double-headed instrument of Hephaestus is the double-headed smith's hammer so the symbolism is important. Zeus swallowing the goddess symbolized the progressive suppression of the earlier traditional religious beliefs, symbolically dethroning the goddess, Metis, but allowing Athene (her daughter) to be "born" of Zeus because her worship was so pervasive and widespread that it could not be suppressed. That is likely the reason the labrys was depicted as the instrument used by Hephaestus (who much earlier had been a consort of the Earth goddess) to release Athene.

On Greek coins of the classical period (e.g. Pixodauros, etc.) a type of Zeus venerated at Labraunda in Caria that numismatists call Zeus Labraundeus stands with a tall lotus-tipped sceptre upright in his left hand and the double-headed axe over his right shoulder.

The double-axe also appears in Thracian art. On the Aleksandrovo kurgan fresco, it is probably wielded by Zalmoxis.

Ono

2009-10-14T22:21:00.000-07:00

Ono (斧) is the Japanese word for an "axe" or a "hatchet", and as such it is used to describe various tools of the similar basic structure. As with axes in other cultures, ono are sometimes employed as weapons. Generally four feet long with a heavy, over-sized steel blade. The few existing academic references to this weapon and documentation of extant examples are in connection with the sohei (warrior monks), who also adapt other agricultural tools as weapons. Ono specifically designed for military use is of extreme rarity.

Valaška

2009-10-14T22:00:00.000-07:00

The valaška (Polish: ciupaga, Hungarian: fokos, Ukrainian: бартка, топірець) is a long thin light axe used in past centuries by shepherds and other Gorals in the Carpathian Mountains, especially in Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine and Hungary. The main feature of a valaška is a combination of a tool with a walking stick, which could also be used as a light weapon. It has symbolic historical and cultural connotations and is still used as a prop in many traditional dances, for example the odzemok.

Appearance

A valaška is a light axe with a long and straight wooden shaft, often with a metal butt. The length of the shaft is usually slightly more than 1 metre. The shafts were usually engraved as their owners had plenty of time for crafting.

A small metal head-piece is sharp on one side while the other side is flat and can be used as a hammer. The head-piece is formed to fit comfortably into the hand so the valaška could be used as a walking stick.

Today's valaškas are mostly decorative, some having golden or silver head-pieces. Many are considered works of art.

History and usage

In the ninth century, Hungarian warriors used light axes on long shafts, called fokos, before them, the Bulgars and also the Alans used a very similar type of that.

In the fourteenth through seventeenth centuries, valaškas were brought into Central Europe from Wallachia, (today's Romania), along the Carpathian Mountains by Romanian shepherd migrants called Vlachs as part of their culture. Valaškas were mostly used by shepherds as versatile tools, providing a small axe, a supplemental hammer and a walking stick. Although a valaška could not be used to effectively cut down heavy trees, it was still able to cut smaller branches.

In Slovakia and Poland, valaškas were inseparable tools of Slovak and Polish shepherds, together with heavy decorative belts. In Slovak culture, the valaška was popularized by Slovak historical legend Juraj Jánošík.

In Hungary, modified valaškas were also used as martial weapons by Hungarian warriors in the medieval age, used for example in the 18th century in Rákóczi's War for Independence against Austrian soldiers. In the 17th and 18th century, Hungarian Kuruc leader Imre Thököly and his soldiers used valaškas as weapons. Hungarian shepherds in the northern regions used valaška as tools as well.

Present-day usage

At present, valaškas are still made and sold as souvenirs and for decorative purposes. They are also still used in many traditional dances. Occasionally they may be seen in the rural parts of the country where older men still use them as walking sticks. They are rarely used as tools or weapons.

Tomahawk

2009-10-14T21:56:00.000-07:00

A tomahawk (also referred to as a hawk) is a type of axe native to North America, traditionally resembling a hatchet with a straight shaft.^[1]^[2] The name came into the English language in the 17th century as a transliteration of the Virginian Algonquian word. Tomahawks were general purpose tools used by Native Americans and European Colonials alike, and often employed as a hand-to-hand or a thrown weapon, much like the nzappa zap.^[1]^[2] It originally featured a stone head, but later iron or brass heads were used. The metal tomahawk heads were originally based on a Royal Navy ballistic and used as a trade-item with Native Americans for food and other provisions.

Composition

A pipe tomahawk dating to the early 19th century.

The tomahawk shaft is usually less than 2 ft (0.61 m) in length, traditionally made of hickory, ash, or maple.^[1]^[2]^[3] The heads are anywhere from 9–20 oz (260–570 g) in weight, with a cutting edge usually not much longer than four inches from toe to heel.^[2] The poll can feature a small hammer, spike or simply be rounded off, and they usually do not have lugs.^[2] Stone tomahawk heads were typically made of polished soapstone, and ornately carved examples were used in some Native American rituals.^[1] These usually had a pipe-bowl carved into the poll, and a hole drilled down the center of the shaft for smoking tobacco through the tomahawk.^[2] There are also metal-headed versions of this unusual pipe.^[2] Pipe tomahawks are artifacts unique to North America: created by Europeans as trade objects but often exchanged as diplomatic gifts.^[1] They are powerful symbols of the choice Europeans and Indians faced whenever they met: one end was the pipe of peace, the other an axe of war.^[1]^[2]^[3]

In Colonial French territory, a very different tomahawk design, closer to the ancient Francisca, was in use by French settlers and Indigenous Peoples.^[3] In the late 18th Century, the British army issued tomahawks to their Colonial Regulars during the American Revolutionary War as a weapon and tool.^[4]

Modern use

Tomahawk throwing is a popular sport among American historical re-enactment groups, and new martial arts such as Okichitaw have begun to revive tomahawk fighting techniques used during the Colonial era.^[5] Tomahawks are also a category within competitive knife throwing. Today's hand-forged tomahawks are being made by master craftsmen throughout the United States.^[6]^[7]

Traditional form tomahawk made by Steve Opperman

Modern-day Tomahawks have gained in popularity with the re-emergence of the "Vietnam Tomahawk" by American Tomahawk Company in the beginning of 2001, and a collaboration with Custom Knife-maker Ernest Emerson of Emerson Knives.^[6] Modern-day Tomahawks designed by the late Peter LaGana included wood handles, a hatchet-like bit and a leather sheath and were used by select U.S. forces during the Vietnam war and are referred to as "Vietnam Tomahawks".^[6]^[8]

A similar wood handle "Vietnam Tomahawk" is also produced today by Cold Steel. The tomahawk was later redesigned featuring synthetic hafts by American Tomahawk Company and named "VTAC"'s ("Vietnam Tactical Tomahawk"'s) and are manufactured by Fehrman Knives. SOG Knives Inc. has also entered the field with its own version of the "Vietnam Tomahawk", the Fusion Tactical Tomahawk. The original "Vietnam Tomahawks" are rare and expensive.^[6]

These modern tomahawks are made of drop forged, differentially heat treated, alloy steel.^[9] The differential heat treatment allows for the chopping portion and the spike to be harder than the middle section allowing for a shock resistant body with a durable temper.^[9]

Military application

R&D Hawk by Sayoc-Winkler Knives 2

American Tomahawk Company's "VTAC" ("Vietnam Tactical Tomahawk") is in use by the US Army Stryker Brigade in Afghanistan, the 172nd SBCT Team based at Fort Wainwright, the 3rd Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division out of Fort Lewis, a Recon Platoon in the 2-183d CAV (116th IBCT)(OIF 2007-2008) and numerous other soldiers.^[6]^[9] The VTAC was issued a National Stock Number(4210-01-518-7244) and classified as a “Class 9 rescue kit” as a result of a program called the Rapid Fielding Initiative; it is also included within every Stryker vehicle as the “Modular Entry Tool set”.^[6]^[9] This design is enjoying something of a renaissance with US soldiers in Iraq and Afghanistan as a tool and in use in hand-to-hand combat.^[10]

The Sayoc-Winkler Knives 2 "R&D Hawk" was developed by ABS Mastersmith Daniel Winkler and Sayoc Tactical Group Tomahawk Instructor Rafael Kayanan's design of a hawk for modern applications.^[11]

According to military After action Reports, apart from use as a CQB weapon, the tomahawk's modern use includes non-explosive dynamic entry, obstacle removal, lock/hasp removal, opening crates, ventilating fuel drums, digging fighting positions, personal defense, and IED removal.^[9]

Manufacturers

Current tomahawk manufacturers include:

American Tomahawk Company
Branton Knives in collaboration with Walter Brend
Cold Steel
Fury by Joy Enterprises
LC Hansen
K5 Tactical
Ranger Knives
RMJ Forge
Strider Knives
Joe Szilaski
Winkler Knives

Battle Axe

2009-10-14T21:24:00.000-07:00

A battle axe (also battle-axe or battle-ax) is an axe specifically designed for use in melee. Battle axes were specialized versions of utility axes. Many were suitable for use in one hand, while others were larger and were wielded two-handed. Axes designed for warfare ranged in weight from just over 0.5 kg to 3 kg (1 to 6 pounds), and in length from just over 30 cm to upwards of 1.5 m (1 to 5 feet), such as the Danish axe or the sparth axe. Anything longer than 1.5 m would arguably fall more into the category of polearms. Through the course of human history, commonplace objects have been pressed into service as weapons. Axes, by virtue of their ubiquity, are no exception. Besides axes designed for combat, there were many axes that were both tools and weapons. Axes could be designed as throwing weapons as well (see the francisca for an example). Axes were always cheaper than swords and far more available.

Overview

Battle axes generally weigh far less than modern splitting axes, especially mauls, because they were designed to cut legs and arms rather than wood; consequently more narrow, slicing blades are the norm. This facilitates deep, grievous wounds, additionally, a lighter weapon is much quicker in combat. The handles of military axes were often reinforced with metal bands called langets, so that an enemy warrior could not cut the wooden handle. Some axes even had all-metal handles.

Stone axes have been in use since at least the 3rd millennium BC, see Battle-axe people. They were followed by copper, bronze, iron and steel axes.

In the eastern Mediterranean the double-bladed labrys axe was prevalent, and the sagaris, described as either single or double bladed became associated with the mythological Amazons, though these were generally ceremonial rather than practical tools.

Battle axes were also common in Northern Europe in the "Viking Age" (9th and 10th C) and up to the 16 Century. See Viking Age arms and armour.

Most medieval European battle axes had broad, socketed heads (meaning that the axe head has an opening into which the haft is inserted.), and some included long strips of metal (langets) along the haft to prevent the haft from being damaged during battle. Many polearms, such as halberds and poleaxes, are variations of the form of the battle axe. The axes had fallen out of favor among knights and nobility, and were replaced by swords. However, when armor designed to defeat swords appeared, simpler weapons were employed. The mace could crush though armor and damage the tissue underneath. The battle-axe took this one step further, by concentrating the weight on a wedge it crushed through armor and easily cut flesh.

In Napoleonic times and later, equine specialists, or Farriers in military service carried heavy long axes. Though these could be used for fighting, their primary use was logistical. The branded hooves of horses were removed to prove that they had died. Napoleon's Pioneer Corps also carried axes that were used for both clearing a path and fighting.

Horseman's Axe, ca. 1475

This is an example of a battle axe that was specialized for the use of horsemen. Note the hole on the haft for the accommodation of a leather strap to be passed over the wrist, the belt hook for ease of carrying when not in use and the langets. This example dates from the last quarter of the fifteenth century and is 69 cm (27 inches) long. The haft is a replacement. The punched decoration on the blade suggests German manufacture. Other variations of this design include a hammer face instead of the spike behind the blade.

A good reference, contemporary with their use, is the Maciejowski Bible of ca. 1250.

Axe

2009-10-14T06:36:00.000-07:00

The axe, or ax, is an implement that has been used for millennia to shape, split and cut wood, harvest timber, as a weapon and a ceremonial or heraldic symbol. The axe has many forms and specialized uses but generally consists of an axe head with a handle, or helve.

The earliest examples of axes have heads of stone with some form of wooden handle attached (hafted) in a method to suit the available materials and use. Axes made of copper, bronze, iron, steel appeared as these technologies developed.

The axe is an example of a simple machine, as it is a type of wedge, or dual inclined plane. This reduces the effort needed by the wood chopper. It splits the wood into two parts by the pressure concentration at the blade. The handle of the axe also acts as a lever allowing the user to increase the force at the cutting edge — not using the full length of the handle is known as choking the axe. For fine chopping using a side axe this sometimes is a positive effect, but for felling with a double bitted axe it reduces efficiency. Generally cutting axes have a shallow wedge angle, whereas splitting axes have a deeper angle. Most axes are double beveled, i.e. symmetrical about the axis of the blade, but some specialist broadaxes have a single bevel blade, and usually an offset handle that allows them to be used for finishing work without putting the user's knuckles at risk of injury. Less common today, they were once an integral part of a joiner and carpenter's tool kit, not just a tool for use in forestry. A tool of similar origin is the billhook. However in France and Holland the billhook often replaced the axe as a joiner's bench tool.

Most modern axes have steel heads and wooden handles, typically hickory in the USA and ash in Europe, although plastic or fiberglass handles are also common. Modern axes are specialized by use, size and form. Hafted axes with short handles designed for use with one hand are often called hand axes but the term hand axe refers to axes without handles as well. Hatchets tend to be small hafted axes often with a hammer on the back side ( the poll).

Axes were frequently used in combat as they were easy to make, and the village edge tool makers were frequently the armourers to the lord of the manor in times of war.

History

Roman axe in an ancient Roman relief in Brescia, Italy

A bronze axe from the Chinese Shang Dynasty, 12th to 11th centuries BC

Initially axes were probably not hafted. The first true hafted axes are known from the Mesolithic period (ca. 6000 BC). Axes made from ground stone are known since the Neolithic. Few wooden hafts have been found from this period, but it seems that the axe was normally hafted by wedging. Birch-tar and raw-hide lashings were used to fix the blade.

Sometimes a short section of deer antler (an "antler sleeve") was used, which prevented the splitting of the haft and softened the impact on the stone blade itself, helping absorb the impact of each axe blow and lessening the chances of breaking the handle. The antler was hollowed out at one end to create a socket for the axehead. The antler sheath was then either perforated and a handle inserted into it or set in a hole made in the handle instead.

The distribution of stone axes is an important indication of prehistoric trade. thin sectioning is used to determine the provenance of the stone blades. In Europe, Neolithic 'axe factories', where thousands of ground stone axes were roughed out are known from many places, such as:

Great Langdale, Great Britain (tuff)
Rathlin Island, Ireland (porcellanite)
Krzemionki, Poland (flint)
Plancher-les-Mines, France (pelite)
Val de'Aoste, Italy (omphacite).

Stone axes are still produced and in use today in parts of Irian Jaya, New Guinea. The Mount Hagen area was an important production centre.

From the late Neolithic/Chalcolithic onwards, axes were made of copper or copper mixed with arsenic. These axes were flat and hafted much like their stone predecessors. Axes continued to be made in this manner with the introduction of Bronze metallurgy. Eventually the hafting method changed and the flat axe developed into the ‘flanged axe,’ then palstaves, and later winged and socketed axes.

The Proto-Indo-European word for "axe" may have been pelek'u- (Greek pelekus πέλεκυς, Sanskrit parashu, see also Parashurama), but the word was probably a loan, or a Neolithic wanderwort, ultimately related to Sumerian balag, Akkadian pilaku- .

Symbolism, ritual, and folklore

Minoan symbolic labrys of gold, 2nd millennium BC: many Arkalochori Axes have been found in the Arkalochori cave

At least since the late Neolithic, elaborate axes (battle-axes, T-axes, etc.) had a religious significance and probably indicated the exalted status of their owner. Certain types almost never show traces of wear; deposits of unshafted axe blades from the middle Neolithic (such as at the Somerset Levels in Britain) may have been gifts to the deities.

In Minoan Crete, the double axe (labrys) had a special significance, used by women priests in religious ceremonies. In 1998 a labrys, complete with an elaborately embellished haft, was found at Cham-Eslen, Canton of Zug, Switzerland. The haft was 120 cm long and wrapped in ornamented birch-bark. The axe blade is 17.4 cm long and made of antigorite, mined in the Gotthard-area. The haft goes through a biconical drilled hole and is fastened by wedges of antler and by birch-tar. It belongs to the early Cortaillod culture.

In the Roman fasces, the axe symbolized the authority to execute and were often used as symbols for Fascist Italy under Mussolini.

In folklore, stone axes were sometimes believed to be thunderbolts and were used to guard buildings against lightning, as it was believed (mythically) that lightning never struck the same place twice. This has caused some skewing of axe distributions.

Steel axes were important in superstition as well. A thrown axe could keep off a hailstorm, sometimes an axe was placed in the crops, with the cutting edge to the skies to protect the harvest against bad weather. An upright axe buried under the sill of a house would keep off witches, while an axe under the bed would assure male offspring.

A collection of old Australian axes

Basques, Australians and New Zealanders have developed variants of rural sports that perpetuate the traditions of log cutting with axe. The Basque variants, splitting horizontally or vertically disposed logs, are generically called aizkolaritza (from aizkora: axe).

In Yorùbá mythology, the oshe (double-headed axe) symbolizes Shango, Orisha (god) of thunder and lightning. It is said to represent swift and balanced justice. Shango altars often contain a carved figure of a woman holding a gift to the god with a double-bladed axe sticking up from her head.

Parts of the axe

A diagram showing the main points on an axe.

The axe is comprised of two primary components, the axe head, and the haft.

The axe head is typically bounded by the bit (or blade) at one end, and the poll (or butt) at the other, though some designs feature two bits opposite each other. The top corner of the bit where the cutting edge begins is called the toe, and the bottom corner is known as the heel. Either side of the head is called the cheek, which is sometimes supplemented by lugs where the head meets the haft, and the hole where the haft is mounted is called the eye. The part of the bit that descends below the rest of the axe-head is called the beard, and a bearded axe is an antiquated axe head with an exaggerated beard that can sometimes extend the cutting edge twice the height of the rest of the head.

The axe haft is sometimes called the handle. Traditionally, it was made of a resilient hardwood like hickory or ash, but modern axes often have hafts made of durable synthetic materials. Antique axes and their modern reproductions, like the tomahawk, often had a simple, straight haft with a circular cross-section that wedged onto the axe-head without the aid of wedges or pins. Modern hafts are curved for better grip and to aid in the swinging motion, and are mounted securely to the head. The shoulder is where the head mounts onto the haft, and this is either a long oval or rectangular cross-section of the haft that's secured to the axe head with small metal or wooden wedges. The belly of the haft is the longest part, where it bows in gently, and the throat is where it curves sharply down into to the short grip, just before end of the haft, which is known as the knob.

Wind and Fire Wheels

2009-10-14T00:27:00.000-07:00

Wind-and-fire wheels (simplified Chinese: 风火轮; traditional Chinese: 風火輪; pinyin: Feng Huo Lun) are mêlée weapons, wielded as a pair, associated with Chinese martial arts such as Baguazhang and Tai Chi Chuan.

Each wheel is a flat metal ring approximately 38 cm (about 15 inches) in diameter. One quarter-arc has a padded grip with a cross-guard; Opposite and adjacent arcs have protruding flame-styled blades. With one wheel in each hand, the practitioner can slash, stab, parry or disarm an opponent.

A contemporary proponent of the wind and fire wheels is Grandmaster Dr. L. Steve Sun, who believes that practice with these blades accelerates development of chi (internal energy) due to both arms being weight-loaded and forced to interact with each other. He also claims that both wheels must be constantly active for coordinated flow to emerge.^[1]

In the mythological story Fengshen Yanyi, the Immortal T'ai-I gave No-cha a wind-wheel and a fire-wheel. These were tread on whilst chanting incantations, to serve as a magic vehicle.^[2]

In the Dynasty Warriors videogame series, the weapons wielded by character Sun Shang Xiang, named "chakrams" in-game, are wind-and-fire wheels.^[3]

Wind-and-fire wheels are also used by Axel in the Kingdom Hearts series, again referred to as chackrams.

Mu Puche / Korean Fan

2009-10-14T00:19:00.000-07:00

Korean Fighting Fan is a martial arts weapon spawned during the early Joseon Dynasty as a weapon of opportunity. Swords and similar edged weapons were banned during this time which created a need for weapons that could be held in plain sight without arousing suspicion. Most popular among the middle class and upper class, the fan became an option.

Craftsmen discovered a method of taking the "pak dahl" wood, an extremely resilient birch tree that thrived in the ice storms and harsh seasons of Korea's mountain peninsula, and tempering to a hardness that could resist edged weapons typical of the era.

Variations of Fighting Fans

Following traditions of traditional weaponry, Korean Fans were often unique to their wielder and bore many possible combinations. Some wove a flexible metal ribbons along the outer most edge for cutting power. Some preferred feathers that hid finger-sized razor blades which would rake upon striking. Others held variations of poisons or were used to conceal other weapons such as throwing blades which could be released in a spread upon snapping the fan open. Poison fans often hid deadly to stunning concoctions in bladders or channels which would open upon spreading the fan, allowing the user to gently direct a gust of toxins at their opponent over short distances. Folklore also suggests occasional traveling merchants trading with China possessed fans with small compartments in the vanes of the fan which held small explosive pellets that upon striking a surface would create a bright and dazzling flash of light.

Tessen - Japanese War Fan

2009-10-14T00:14:00.000-07:00

A number of war fans were used in Japanese feudal warfare, of varying size and material, for different purposes.

One of the most significant, and perhaps most interesting, uses was as a signalling device. Signalling fans came in three varieties: a tasseled pom-pon, a solid iron fan, or a wood and paper one, very similar to the gunbai used today by sumo referees. The commander would raise or lower his fan and point in different ways to issue commands to the soldiers, which would then be passed on by other forms of visible and audible signalling.

The art of fighting with war fans is tessenjutsu.

Types of war fan

Gunsen (軍扇^?) were folding fans used by the average warriors to cool themselves off. They were made of bronze, brass or a similar metal for the inner spokes, and often used iron for the outer spokes, making them lightweight but strong. Warriors would hang their fans from a variety of places, most typically from the belt or the breastplate, though the latter often impeded the use of a sword or a bow.
Saihai (采配^?) were tasseled signalling fans which would be used by a commander to signal troop movements.
Tessen (鉄扇^?) were folding fans with outer spokes made of iron which were designed to look like normal, harmless folding fans or solid clubs shaped to look like a closed fan. Samurai could take these to places where swords or other overt weapons were not allowed, and some swordsmanship schools included training in the use of the tessen as a weapon. The tessen was also used for fending off arrows and darts, as a throwing weapon, and as an aid in swimming.
Uchiwa (団扇^?) were large iron fans, sometimes built on a wooden core, which were carried by high-ranking officers. They were used to ward off arrows, as a sunshade, and to signal to troops.

War fans in history and folklore

One particularly famous legend involving war fans concerns a direct confrontation between Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin at the fourth battle of Kawanakajima in 1561. Kenshin burst into Shingen's command tent on horseback, having broken through his entire army, and attacked; his sword was deflected by Shingen's war fan. It is not clear whether Shingen parried with a tessen, a dansen uchiwa, or some other form of fan. Nevertheless, it was quite rare for commanders to fight directly, and especially for a general to defend himself so effectively when taken so off-guard.

Minamoto no Yoshitsune is said to have defeated the great warrior monk Saitō Musashibō Benkei with a tessen.

Araki Murashige is said to have used a tessen to save his life when the great warlord Oda Nobunaga sought to assassinate him. Araki was invited before Nobunaga, and was stripped of his swords at the entrance to the mansion, as was customary. When he performed the customary bowing at the threshold, Nobunaga intended to have the room's sliding doors slammed shut onto Araki's neck, killing him. However, Araki supposedly placed his tessen in the grooves in the floor, blocking the doors from closing.

The Yagyū clan, sword instructors to the Tokugawa shoguns, included tessenjutsu in their swordschool, the Yagyū Shinkage-ryū.

War fans outside Japan

Fans are also used for offensive and defensive purposes in the Chinese and Korean martial arts. They are called "铁扇" (tiě shān, literally "steel fan") in Chinese, and "부채" (buchae) in Korean.

Brass Knuckles

2009-10-14T00:02:00.000-07:00

Brass knuckles, also sometimes called knuckles, knucks, brass knucks, or knuckle dusters, are weapons used in hand-to-hand combat. Brass knuckles are pieces of metal, usually steel despite their name, shaped to fit around the knuckles. Designed to deliver the force of punches through a smaller and harder contact area, they result in greater tissue disruption and increased likelihood of fracturing the victim's bones on impact.

History and variations

Knuckle dusters were incorporated into the so-called Apache revolvers used by criminals in France in the early 1900s.^[1]

Legality and distribution

In Canada, brass knuckles or any similar devices are listed as prohibited weapons,^[2] and possession of such weapon is a criminal offence under the Criminal Code of Canada.^[3] In France, however, purchase and possession of brass knuckles is legal for 16 year-olds with parental permission, and are freely sold to people of legal age. The French term is 'un coup-de-poing américan', literally 'an American punch'.^[4]

Brass knuckles can normally be purchased at flea markets, swap meets, and some sword and weapon shops. Due to a shady reputation they are often sold as in at least one case, affixed with a detachable screw allowing them to be sold as a belt buckle.^[5] Devices that are made of hardened plastic, rather than metal, exist. Some are marketed as "undetectable by airport metal detectors."

Other varieties

Common varieties include spiked knuckles, "maiden's fingers," "fat boys," "wedding rings," brass knuckles with various "imprintable" images on the knuckles (longhorn steer, lions, skulls, etc), and even "knuckle-knives." Spiked knuckles in particular are among the most vicious variety of brass knuckles, as they not only can shatter bone into fragments but will shred tissue. The length of the spikes varies from as small as a quarter of an inch to up to six inches. Shorter spikes emphasize the impact of the brass knuckle on bone, while longer blades are used solely to inflict soft-tissue damage.

Bayonet

2009-10-13T23:52:00.000-07:00

A bayonet (from French baïonnette) is a knife-, dagger-, sword-, or spike-shaped weapon designed to fit on, over or underneath the muzzle of a rifle barrel or similar weapon, effectively turning the gun into a spear. It is a close quarter battle combat or last-resort weapon.

History

Early-19th century socket bayonet

Socket of a bayonet

The origins of the bayonet are somewhat hazy. The term 'Bayonette' dates back to the end of the 16th century, but it is not clear if the weapon at the time was the weapon as is known today or simply a type of knife. For example, Cotgrave's 1611 Dictionarie describes the Bayonet as 'a kind of small flat pocket dagger, furnished with knives; or a great knife to hang at the girdle'. Likewise, Pierre Borel wrote in 1655 that a kind of long-knife called a 'bayonette' was made in Bayonne but does not give any further description ^[1].There is a legend that during the mid-17th century irregular military conflicts of rural France, the peasants of the Southern French town of Bayonne, having run out of powder and shot, rammed their long-bladed hunting knives into the muzzles of their primitive muskets to fashion impromptu spears and, by necessity, created an ancillary weapon. Another possibility is that the bayonet originated as a hunting weapon: early firearms were fairly inaccurate and took a long time to reload; thus a hunter of dangerous animals such as wild boar could easily have been exposed to danger if the hunter's bullet missed the animal.^[2]^[3] The bayonet thus may have emerged to allow a hunter to fend off wild animals in the event of a missed shot. The weapon was introduced into the French army by General Jean Martinet and was common in most European armies by the 1660s.

The benefit of such a dual-purpose arm contained in one was soon apparent. The early muskets fired at a slow rate (about a round per minute when loading with loose powder and ball, and no more than 3–4 rounds per minute using paper cartridges), and were both inaccurate and unreliable. Bayonets provided a useful addition to the weapons system when an enemy charging to contact could cross the musket's killing ground (a range of approximately 100 yards/metres at the most optimistic) at the expense of perhaps only one or two volleys from their waiting opponents. A foot-long bayonet, extending to a regulation 17 inches (approx. 43 centimetres) during the Napoleonic period, on a 5-foot (around 1.5 metre) tall musket achieved a reach similar to the infantry spear, and later halberd, of earlier times. The bayonet/musket combination was however considerably heavier than a polearm of the same length.

Early bayonets were of the "plug" type. The bayonet had a round handle that slid directly into the musket barrel. This naturally prevented the gun from being fired. In 1671, plug bayonets were issued to the French regiment of fusiliers then raised. They were issued to part of an English dragoon regiment raised in 1672 and disbanded in 1674, and to the Royal Fusiliers when raised in 1685. The danger incurred by the use of this bayonet (which put a stop to all fire) was felt so early that the younger Puységur saw a ring-bayonet in 1678 which could be fixed without stopping the fire. The defeat of forces loyal to William of Orange by Jacobite Highlanders at the Battle of Killiecrankie in 1689 was due (among other things) to the use of the plug-bayonet; and shortly afterwards the defeated leader, Hugh Mackay, is believed to have introduced a ring-bayonet of his own invention. Soon "socket" bayonets offset the blade from the musket barrel's muzzle. The bayonet attached over the outside of the barrel with a ring-shaped socket, secured on later models by a spring-loaded catch on the muzzle of the musket barrel.

A trial with badly fitting socket or zigzag bayonets was made after the battle of Fleurus, 1690, in the presence of Louis XIV, who refused to adopt them. Shortly after the Peace of Ryswick (1697), the English and Germans abolished the pike and introduced these bayonets, and plates of them are given in Surirey de St. Remy's Mémoires d'Artillerie, published in Paris in that year; but owing to a military cabal they were not issued to the French infantry until 1703. Henceforward, the bayonet became, with the musket or other firearm, the typical weapon of infantry.

Many socket bayonets were triangular in cross-section in order to provide flexing strength in the blade without much increase in weight. Flexing strength was needed in case a bayonet struck a hard object: better to have it bend and be repairable, than have it be stiff and shatter on impact. This design of bayonet did not usually include a grip for using the bayonet apart from the gun, although a socket bayonet was deemed a sidearm anyway, especially in the British army of 1775.

The triangular bayonet, unlike an old urban legend, was not designed to create stab wounds "that were difficult to stitch when attended to by a medic, as it is more difficult to stitch a three-sided wound than a two-sided one, thus making the wound more likely to become infected".^{[citation needed]} This quote ignores the reality of surgery, in that surgeons have sewn up jagged wounds using more stitches when needed, since time immemorial. Instead, three sided bayonets were designed to be an economical compromise between flexing strength and the amount of wrought iron needed to make the bayonet (compare to a structural steel Tee-beam).

Similarly, in the Soviet Union, later bayonet blades, now made of steel, were stiffened with a small cross-section in the form of a cross, in order to make them more compact in form and fold better onto the sides of their rifles (see Mosin Nagant model of 1944). It is said that self-inflicted wounds made by soldiers to get themselves out of the line of battle would be recognized as such and bring them greater disciplinary punishment.^{[citation needed]} In All Quiet on the Western Front, Erich Maria Remarque, the book's author, reported that in World War I French soldiers killed German prisoners who had serrated blade bayonets, as they assumed they were for cutting off the limbs of Allied soldiers. These were carried by combat engineers as tools and by NCOs as signs of rank.

Bayonet M. 1898/05 used by Prussian Army during WW1

18th and 19th century military tactics included various massed bayonet charges and defenses. The Russian Army used the bayonet the most frequently in any Napoleonic conflict. Their motto was "The Bullet is foolish, the Bayonet wise". This implies that the bullet of a smoothbore musket was wildly inaccurate at ranges past 50 yards (which was true in most cases), but with the close quarters of bayonet fighting, it was hard to miss. It should be noted, however, that in the thick of a close-quarter combat, many soldiers revert to using bayonet-mounted rifles as clubs, this apparently being a more "natural" way of fighting (as described by military historians such as John Keegan).

Bayonets were experimented with through much of the 18th and 19th centuries. In the United States Navy before the American Civil War, bayonet blades were even affixed to single-shot pistols, although they soon proved useless for anything but cooking. Cutlasses remained the favoured weapon for the navies of the time, though Queen Victoria's Royal Navy gave up the pikes once used to repel attacks by boarders in favor of the cutlass bayonet.

German Soldiers at Bayonet practice 1914

French infantry bayonet charge during the First World War. These are for Lebel rifle.

The 19th century finally saw the popularity of the sword bayonet. It was a long-bladed weapon with a single- or double-edged blade that could also be used as a shortsword. Its initial purpose was to ensure that riflemen, when in ranks with musketmen, whose weapons were longer, could form square properly to fend off cavalry attacks, when sword bayonets were fitted. A prime early example of a sword bayonet-fitted rifle would be the British Infantry Rifle of 1800-1840, later known as the "Baker Rifle". (However, one usually removed the sword bayonet on the Infantry Rifle before firing; the weight at the end of the barrel affected balance and stability, hence accuracy)

The hilt usually had quillons modified to accommodate the gun barrel, and a hilt mechanism that enabled the bayonet to be attached to a bayonet lug. When dismounted, a sword bayonet could be used in combat as a side arm. When attached to the musket or rifle, it effectively turned almost any long gun into a spear or glaive, suitable not only for thrusting but also for slashing. World War I saw the shortening of sword bayonets into knife-sized weapons, usable as fighting knives or trench knives, so that the vast majority of modern bayonets are knife bayonets.

Design

Modern bayonets are often knife-shaped with either a handle and a socket, or are permanently attached to the rifle as with the SKS. Depending on where and when a specific SKS was manufactured, it may have a permanently attached bayonet with a knife-shaped blade (Russian, Romanian, Yugoslavian, early Chinese), or a cruciform (late Chinese) or triangular (Albanian) spike bayonet, or no bayonet at all.

In being attached to a rifle, the bayonet slides onto the bayonet lug, a rail-like slide on the rifle, with a reciprocating feature in the hilt of the bayonet. Using spring-loaded devices that differentiate from bayonet to bayonet, the hilt is locked in place on the bayonet lug. Typically, a hole in the guard on the bayonet fits around the barrel of the rifle to keep it in place and not allow wobbling, a serious problem if the bayonet is only attached to the lug. To detach, the user simply pushes a button, usually found at the pommel of the bayonet or just behind the guard on the spine or edge side, not in line with the flat of the blade, to be pushed with the thumb. This button releases the spring locks and allows the bayonet to be removed.

Most modern bayonets have a fuller (visible on the top half of the blade shown above), which is a concave depression in the blade designed to reduce the weight while keeping the blade's stiffness. Some speculate that this design feature makes a bayonet easier to withdraw after a stabbing attack by allowing air into the wound it produces, or to allow blood to drain from it, but in fact fullers have not been experimentally shown to have such an effect. Rather, the fuller increases the bending strength of the blade in the same way the "I" cross-section of an I-Beam is more efficient in resisting bending than an equivant rectangular cross-section. [1]

Many modern bayonets are designed to be multi-use tools. A knife bayonet, for example contains all of the non-combat utility of regular knives (for example, in cooking). The Mosin-Nagant M1891/30 was equipped with a socket bayonet whose flat tapered point culminated in what is essentially a flat-head screwdriver. As such, a soldier could completely disassemble the rifle with only the bayonet.

Modern use

Swiss army Sig 550 rifle with bayonet.

The advent of modern warfare in the 1900s decreased the bayonet's usefulness, and as early as the U.S. Civil War (1861–65) the bayonet was ultimately responsible for less than one percent of battlefield casualties.^[4] Modern warfare still sees the use of the bayonet for close-quarter fighting. Scottish regiments of the British forces, for example, performed bayonet charges during the Falklands War, the Second Gulf War and the war in Afghanistan.^[5] During the Korean War, Lewis L. Millett led soldiers of the US Army's 27th Infantry Regiment in taking out a Chinese machine gun position with bayonets. Millett was awarded the Medal of Honor for this action.

In the U.S. Marine Corps, trainees at the Marine Corps Recruit Depot in San Diego for instance get their first instruction in using the bayonet as a lethal weapon on their 10th day. The essence of bayonet fighting as taught in the Corps is to spring forward from a modified crouch and thrust the blade into the enemy. Recruits are taught to slash an enemy diagonally from shoulder to hipbone and how to use a bayonet to push aside an enemy's weapon.^{[citation needed]}

In a modern context, bayonets are used for controlling prisoners and as a "last resort" weapon for close quarters combat e.g. situations where a soldier has run out of ammunition, or if his weapon has jammed or is damaged. The unmistakeable appearance of bayonets has strong visual and psychological impact for anyone on the receiving end. Professional soldiers who have grown used to the experience of having bullets fired at them in combat can find the idea of being stabbed or slashed by a sharp, pointed blade of cold steel much more unpleasant.

In general, bayonets are not fitted to weapons except when such emergency situations are at hand. This is because a bayonet will impair long-range accuracy. The reason for this is because the extra weight of the bayonet affects the balance of the rifle barrel, which alters its sighting characteristics. For example, bayonet-equipped Mosin Nagant rifles were normally sighted in at the factory with the bayonet fixed because Russian doctrine at the time specified that the bayonet should normally be fixed. Consequently, those rifles would shoot to a different point of aim if the bayonet were removed.

A bayonet remains useful as a utility knife, and as an aid to combat morale. Training in the use of the bayonet has been given precedence long after the combat role of the bayonet declined as it is thought to increase desired aggressiveness in troops.^[6] Despite the limitations of the bayonet, many modern assault rifles retain a bayonet lug and the weapon is still issued in many armies.

Although bayonets might appear to be obsolete, they have been used in combat during the 21st Century. For example, they were used as a direct attack weapon by Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders troops from the British Army in the second conflict in Iraq. When two landrovers of Highlander troops were ambushed by soldiers loyal to cleric Moqtada al-Sadr, the Highlander troops fixed bayonets to their rifles and charged the militiamen. A total of 30 Iraqi gunman were killed and 12 were captured.^[5] Similarly, in 2009, Lieutenant James Adamson, aged 24, of the Royal Regiment of Scotland was awarded the Military Cross for a bayonet charge whilst on a tour of duty in Afghanistan: after shooting one Taliban fighter dead Adamson had run out of ammunition when another enemy appeared. Adamson immediately charged the second Taliban fighter and bayonetted him.

Commonwealth armies

The blade bayonet for the Lee-Enfield Rifle No. 5 Mk I "Jungle Carbine" rifle showing fuller

In armies of the Commonwealth of Nations, in close-order drill the command to fix bayonets is a two-part command. It consists of the preparatory order "Fix" and the execution order "BAYONETS". It is issued only from the Order Arms position. The commands to "Fix" and "Unfix" bayonets are among the only drill commands not executed in a specified cadence.

In the Rifle Regiments of the British Army, using a practice harkening back to the days when their flintlock rifles carried sword bayonets, the command is "Fix....SWORDS!". Bayonets are also fixed on the command, "Prepare to Assault", which is given towards the end of a section or fire team attack. The bayonet in the Canadian Forces is fitted on the front of the Tactical Vest for easy access.

The current British bayonet has a hollow handle so it can fit over the flash hider and the blade is offset to the right of the handle.

U.S.

The modern sawback U.S. M9 bayonet, officially adopted in 1984, is issued with a special sheath designed to double as a wire cutter, developed by Phobis III. Some production runs of the M9 have a fuller and some do not, depending upon which contractor manufactured that batch and what the military specs were at the time. The M9 bayonet partially replaced, but is used in addition to, the older M6 and M7 bayonets, introduced in 1957 and 1964 respectively. Many troops have retained the M7, since the M9 has a reputation for breakage due to a combination of its thin blade and varying quality among the various contractors used.

US Marines at bayonet practice

As of 2002, the U.S. Marine Corps is also issuing small quantities of new bayonets of a different design from the M9, with an 8-inch Bowie knife-style blade and no fuller, manufactured by the Ontario Knife Company of New York. This new bayonet, the OKC-3S, is cosmetically similar to the Marines' famed Ka-Bar fighting knife. The weapon upgrade is part of a push begun four years ago by then-Commandant Gen. James L. Jones to expand and toughen hand-to-hand combat training for Marines, including more training in the martial arts and knife fighting. The new bayonet — with a 8-inch (20 cm) long, 1+³⁄₈ in (3.49 cm) wide, .2-inch (0.51 cm) thick steel blade, and weighing 1.25 pounds (0.57 kg) with its sheath — is slightly longer, thicker, and heavier than the current M9. A sharper point and serrations near the handle help penetrate body armor that many modern adversaries wear. In one demonstration, a prototype was able to pierce a punching bag covered with aircraft aluminium and a ballistic vest. Also, the handle is more oval than round to prevent repetitive-stress injuries during training.

In United States Marine Corps drill and ceremonies, the command "FIX... BAYONETS!" is executed in four movements from the order arms position. In the United States Army, the movement is also executed from order arms; there are no specified movements, but the bayonet is to be attached quickly and quietly.

Krag Bowie Bayonet marked 1900	M1 Bayonet made by American Fork & Hoe; used with M1 Garand	The U.S. M6 bayonet and sheath used with the M14 rifle	M7 Bayonet and M8A1 Sheath used with M16 rifle
Adopted in 1984, the U.S. M9 bayonet and sheath used with the M16 rifle and M4 carbine.	The USMC OKC-3S Bayonet

Shillelagh

2009-10-13T23:18:00.000-07:00

A shillelagh (Irish: sail éille, a cudgel with a strap), commonly pronounced /ʃɪˈleɪli/ "shi-LAY-lee" or "shi-LAY-la", IPA: [ɕaˈleːlə]) is a wooden walking stick and club or cudgel, typically made from a stout knotty stick with a large knob at the top, that is associated with Ireland and Irish folklore.

Construction

Shillelaghs are traditionally made from blackthorn (sloe) wood (Prunus spinosa) or oak. The wood would be smeared with butter and placed up a chimney to cure, giving the Shillelagh its typical black shiny appearance. Shillelaghs may be hollowed at the heavy "hitting" end and filled with molten lead to increase the weight beyond the typical two pounds; this sort of Shillelagh is known as a 'loaded stick'. They are commonly the length of a walking stick (distance from the floor to one's wrist with elbow slightly bent). Most also have a heavy knob for a handle which can be used for striking as well as parrying and disarming an opponent. Many shillelaghs also have a strap attached (hence the Irish name), similar to commercially made walking sticks, to place around the holder's wrist.

History

There is no actual connection with the village or forest of Shillelagh (Irish: Síol Éalaigh, meaning "descendants of Éalach") in County Wicklow, other than the fact that both the original Irish names have ended up with the same Anglicized pronunciation.

Although originally used for settling disputes in a gentlemanly manner (like pistols in colonial America, or the katana in Japan), the shillelagh eventually became a symbol of stereotypical violent Irish behavior, and has thus become nearly a tabooed topic of discussion for some Irish people.Modern practitioners of Bataireacht study the use of the shillelagh for self defense and as a martial art. Of the practice, researcher JW Hurley writes:

Methods of Shillelagh fighting have evolved over a period of thousands of years, from the spear, staff, axe and sword fighting of the Irish. There is some evidence which suggests that the use of Irish stick weapons may have evolved in a progression from a reliance on long spears and wattles, to shorter spears and wattles, to the shillelagh, alpeen, blackthorn (walking-stick) and short cudgel. By the 19th century Irish Shillelagh-fighting had evolved into a practice which involved the use of three basic types of weapons, sticks which were long, medium or short in length.^[1]

Modern usage

In modern usage, the shillelagh is recognised (particularly in an Irish-American context) as a symbol of Irishness. For example, the NCOs of the Fighting 69th carry shillelaghs as rank badges in parades.^[2]. In the British Army, blackthorn walking sticks are carried by commissioned officers of the Royal Irish Regiment, although not referred to as shillelaghs. The Boston Celtics logo has a leprechaun leaning on his shillelagh, etc. In San Diego, Padres broadcaster Mark Grant popularized the shillelagh as a rally call, by using terms like "Shillelagh Power" to describe late game heroics by the Padres. (The success of the phrase led the San Diego Padres store to carry inflatable shillelaghs). Similarly, in college football, a Jeweled Shillelagh is the trophy given to the winner of the rivalry game between the University of Southern California Trojans and Notre Dame Fighting Irish. WWE superstar David Finlay carries a shillelagh to the ring as his signature weapon.

Shillelaghs are sometimes referred to in a similar context in folk songs, such as in "Finnegan's Wake", where the term "shillelagh law" refers to a brawl, and in the 19th century song "Rocky Road to Dublin", where references are made to fashioning a shillelagh, using it to hold a tied bag over one's shoulder, and using it as a striking weapon.

The MGM-51 Shillelagh anti-tank missile was named for the club. Officers of the Irish Guards Regiment in the United Kingdom are presented with Shillelaghs as were Pipe Majors of the now disbanded Inniskillen Army Dragoons and Fusiller Regiments

Mere

2009-10-13T23:02:00.001-07:00

A mere (pronounced like "mehreh") is a traditional hand weapon of the Māori, the indigenous people of New Zealand.

A mere is a short club normally made of a heavy hardwood or stone, such as jade. Mere vary in length but are generally around 30 cm (12 inches) in length. Mere have two almost flat sides and a rounded, sharpened top. A mere pounamu is one of "greenstone" (jade). These were symbols of chieftainship and passed down as valuable heirlooms. Traditionally individual mere are named, and each is said to possess a mana of its own.

In use they were used for stabbing and thrusting rather than for axe-like blows.